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. 2019 Apr 9;9(4):142. doi: 10.3390/biom9040142

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© 2019 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Pathophysiology of levodopa-induced dyskinesia (Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature: Springer CNS Drugs Pharmacological Strategies for the Management of Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease, Schaeffer, E.; Pilotto, A.; Berg, D., 2014, doi: 10.1007/s40263-014-0205-z. [360]). Physiological activation, pathological alterations in LD-induced dyskinesia (LID), pathological alterations in LID, modulation, ++ increased activation, -- decreased activation. A_2A adenosine receptor, α_2a and α_2ab noradrenergic receptors, AMPA α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid, Cb₁ cannabinoid receptor, D₁ and D₂ dopaminergic receptors, DA dopamine, DA-autoR dopamine autoreceptor, DAT dopamine transporter, GABA γ-aminobutyric acid, Glu glutamate, H₃ histamine receptor, LID levodopa-induced dyskinesia, mGluR metabotropic glutamate receptor, NA noradrenaline, nAchR nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartate, OP opioid receptor.

Inline graphic — Pathophysiology of levodopa-induced dyskinesia (Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature: Springer CNS Drugs Pharmacological Strategies for the Management of Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease, Schaeffer, E.; Pilotto, A.; Berg, D., 2014, doi: 10.1007/s40263-014-0205-z. [360]). Physiological activation, pathological alterations in LD-induced dyskinesia (LID), pathological alterations in LID, modulation, ++ increased activation, -- decreased activation. A_2A adenosine receptor, α_2a and α_2ab noradrenergic receptors, AMPA α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid, Cb₁ cannabinoid receptor, D₁ and D₂ dopaminergic receptors, DA dopamine, DA-autoR dopamine autoreceptor, DAT dopamine transporter, GABA γ-aminobutyric acid, Glu glutamate, H₃ histamine receptor, LID levodopa-induced dyskinesia, mGluR metabotropic glutamate receptor, NA noradrenaline, nAchR nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartate, OP opioid receptor.