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. 2019 Feb 27;48(6):1033–1055. doi: 10.1007/s10964-019-00993-5

Table 2.

Results of the Association between Parent–Child Relationship Quality and Empathy

Variable k n sa r/slope 95% CI Q M p-value
Lower Upper
Overall correlation 327 57 0.18*** 0.15 0.20
Moderator analyses
 Dimensions
 Dimension RQ 327 57 F(1, 325) = 120.13  < 0.001
Positive 186 53 0.20a*** 0.18 0.23
Negative (reverse coded) 141 10 0.05b** 0.01 0.08
 Positive indicator RQ 180 48 F(2, 177) = 0.21 0.812
Warmth 100 25 0.20*** 0.16 0.24
Attachment 35 19 0.20*** 0.15 0.25
Quality of communication 45 9 0.18*** 0.12 0.24
 Dimension empathy 327 57 F(2, 324) = 3.71 0.026
Affective 181 37 0.16a*** 0.13 0.18
Cognitive 126 22 0.17ab*** 0.14 0.21
Composite 20 15 0.24b*** 0.18 0.29
 Indicator empathy 282 47 F(4, 277) = 2.20 0.069
Empathic concern 132 21 0.17a*** 0.13 0.21
Composite affective 22 7 0.17ab*** 0.10 0.24
Mentalizing 8 3 0.11ab* 0.00 0.22
Perspective taking 100 14 0.20ab*** 0.16 0.23
Composite EC/PT 20 16 0.24b*** 0.18 0.29
 Type of relationship
Type of parent–child relationship 327 57 F(2, 324) = 5.89 0.003
No distinction (parents) 69 29 0.21a*** 0.17 0.25
Mother 136 28 0.17a*** 0.13 0.20
Father 122 24 0.14b*** 0.10 0.17
 Sample and study characteristics
 Age 302 54 F(1, 300) = 0.00 0.997
Intercept (centered) 0.18*** 0.16 0.21
Slope age 0.00 −0.01 0.01
 % Girls 314 51 F(1, 312) = 0.35 0.553
Intercept 0.19*** 0.14 0.24
Slope 0.00 −0.00 0.00
 Ethnic composition 277 34 F(1, 275) = 0.41 0.523
Majority 253 29 0.15*** 0.12 0.19
Mixed 24 6 0.18*** 0.11 0.25
 Publication year (centered) 327 57 F(1, 325) = 2.81 0.095
Intercept 0.18*** 0.15 0.21
Slope 0.02 0.00 0.05
 Measurement characteristics
 Reliability RQ (centered) 219 47 F(1, 217) = 34.63  < 0.001
Intercept 0.18*** 0.15 0.21
Slope 0.05*** 0.03 0.06
 Reliability empathy (centered) 290 52 F(1, 288) = 0.69 0.409
Intercept 0.18*** 0.16 0.21
Slope −0.01 −0.03 0.01
 Informant RQ 322 55 F(1, 320) = 0.58 0.448
Self 286 54 0.18*** 0.15 0.20
Parent 36 5 0.19*** 0.15 0.24
 Informant empathy 319 57 F(1, 317) = 9.39 0.002
Self 297 54 0.18a*** 0.16 0.21
Observant 22 6 0.06b −.01 0.14
 Assessment empathy 327 57 F(2, 324) = 4.07 0.018
Questionnaire 298 51 0.19a*** 0.17 0.22
Observation 14 4 0.07b* −0.03 0.16
Task 15 4 0.11ab* 0.02 0.20
 Questionnaire empathy 292 48 F(3, 288) = 1.45 0.229
IRI 244 31 0.20a*** 0.17 0.23
IECA 23 7 0.18ab*** 0.12 0.24
BES 5 4 0.20ab*** 0.09 0.30
Emotional empathy scale 20 6 0.11b* 0.02 0.18

Estimates with different subscripts differed significantly in strength

k number of correlations, nsa number of samples, RQ relationship quality, Composite EC/PT combination empathic concern and perspective taking, IRI Interpersonal Reactivity Index, IECA Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents, BES Basic Empathy Scale

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001