Table 3.

GSEM model investigating the reciprocal association between bulling involvement and psychological distress by gender

Bullying victimisation at Time 1	Psychological distress at Time 2a
	Full sample		Female		Male
	Coef. (95% CI)	p value	Coef. (95% CI)	p value	Coef. (95% CI)	p value
Not involved (ref.)	1.0	–	1.0	–	1.0	–
Victims	0.85 (− 0.12–1.82)	0.09	0.11 (− 1.15–1.38)	0.86	1.41 (− 0.08–2.90)	0.06
Bully-victims	1.82* (0.30–3.35)	0.02	1.77* (− 0.01–3.55)	0.051	1.78 (− 0.36–3.91)	0.10

Psychological distress at Time 1	Bullying victimisation at Time 2b (Ref: not involved)
	Full sample		Female		Male
	RRs (95% CI)		RRs (95% CI)		RRs (95% CI)
	Victims	Bully-victims	Victims	Bully-victims	Victims	Bully-victims
Psychological distress	1.03* (1.00–1.05)	1.03* (1.00–1.07)	1.05** (1.01–1.09)	1.02 (0.97–1.08)	1.01 (0.98–1.04)	1.05* (1.00–1.09)

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001

^aGSEM models were adjusted for previous psychological distress and covariates including age, family support, friend support, witnessing parental violence, sibling conflict, student’s time spent online, perceiving other students and teachers as helping stop bullying, and family structure

^bGSEM models were adjusted for previous bullying victimisation and similar covariates in psychological distress models