Table 1.
Standard cephalometric landmarks used for the geometric morphometric analysis of the human craniofacial anatomy [11]
| Landmark | Description |
| Alare (Al) | The most lateral points on the nasal aperture in a transverse plane. |
| Anterior nasal spine (ANS) | The most anterior point at the sagittal plane on the bony hard palate. |
| Basion (Ba) | The most inferior posterior point of the occipital bone at the anterior margin of the occipital foramen. |
| Crista galli (Cg) | Most superior point on the crista galli. |
| Ectoconchion (Ec) | The intersection of the most anterior surface of the lateral border of the orbit and a line bisecting the orbit along its long axis. |
| Ectomolare (Ecm) | The most lateral point on the outer surface of the alveolar borders of the maxilla, often opposite the middle of the second molar tooth. |
| Gnathion (Gn) | The midpoint between the most anterior and inferior points of the hard tissue chin in the midsagittal plane. |
| Gonion (Go) | The most outward inferior point on the angle of the mandible. |
| Inferior nasal aperture (IN) | Most inferior point on the inner cortex of the anterior nasal aperture. |
| Menton (Me) | The most inferior midline point on the mandible. |
| Nasion (N) | The point of intersection between the frontonasal suture and the midsagittal plane. |
| Orbitale (Or) | The lowermost point in the lower margin of the bony orbit. |
| Porion (Po) | The most superior point of the external auditory meatus. |
| Pogonion (Pog) | The most prominent point in the chin. |
| Sella (S) | The geometrical centre of the sella turcica. |
| Subspinale (A) | The most concave point of anterior maxilla. |
| Supraorbital notch (So) | Most superior point on the inner cortical plate of the orbital rim. |
| Anatomical plane | Description |
| Frankfurt horizontal | A line connecting the Po and Or points. |
| Nasion-Pogonion | A line connecting the N and Pog points |
| Sella-Nasion | A line connecting the Sella and the Nasion points. |