Table 2.

Factors associated with nutritional status (at risk or malnourished vs normal) (n = 613)

	Univariate analysis				Multivariable analysis
	ORU	95% CI		p	ORA	95% CI		p
		Lower	Upper			Lower	Upper
Socio-demographic characteristics
Received CSSA
No (ref)	1				NS
Yes	1.46	1.01	2.09	0.042
Lifestyle characteristics
Smoking status
Non-smoker (ref)	1				NS
Ex-smoker	0.68	0.40	1.14	0.145
Current smoker	1.57	0.92	2.68	0.097
Level of physical activity (IPAQ-SF)
Low (ref)	1				NS
Moderate	0.56	0.34	0.92	0.023
High	0.40	0.23	0.69	0.001
Health status
Total CCI score
0 (ref)	1				NS
1	1.02	0.67	1.54	0.932
2	1.93	1.08	3.44	0.027
≥ 3	1.65	0.93	2.94	0.088
Hearing ability
Clear (ref)	1				NS
Fair	1.48	0.99	2.21	0.058
Unclear	2.75	1.68	4.50	< 0.001
Visual ability
Clear (ref)	1				1
Fair	1.96	1.28	2.99	0.002	1.71	1.09	2.67	0.020
Unclear	3.31	2.12	5.17	< 0.001	2.71	1.68	4.35	< 0.001
Difficulty in chewing food
No (ref)	1				NS
Yes	1.45	1.02	2.07	0.038
Usual appetite
Normal (ref)	1				1
Good	0.34	0.24	0.50	< 0.001	0.38	0.26	0.56	< 0.001
Bad	5.17	2.25	11.91	< 0.001	4.52	1.92	10.62	< 0.001
Dietary factors
Below recommendation of the dietary guidelinesa:
Grains (3 to 5 bowls per day)
No (ref)	1				NS
Yes	1.63	1.13	2.34	0.009
Vegetables (at least 3 servings per day)
No (ref)	1				NS
Yes	1.69	1.02	2.80	0.043
Fruits (at least 2 servings per day)
No (ref)	1				NS
Yes	1.78	1.17	2.71	0.008
Usually cooking food myself
No (ref)	1				NS
Yes	0.76	0.50	1.16	0.203
Dietary supplements consumption
No (ref)	1				NS
Yes	0.81	0.56	1.16	0.248
Dietary behaviour
Favour food group
No preference (ref)	1				NS
Grains	0.66	0.35	1.23	0.192
Vegetables	0.38	0.20	0.73	0.003
Fruits	0.34	0.16	0.75	0.007
Meats	0.50	0.27	0.96	0.038
Others (milk/fat/salt/sugar)	0.63	0.11	3.71	0.605
Usual number of main meals skipped per day
None (ref)	1				1
One or more	2.26	1.47	3.48	< 0.001	2.03	1.27	3.25	0.003
Preferred temperature of food and drink
Warm (ref)	1				NS
Hot	1.48	1.03	2.12	0.034
Cold	0.88	0.31	2.46	0.801

CCI Charlson comorbidity index, IPAQ-SF the international physical activity questionnaire – short form, NE not entered into multivariable analysis, NS not statistically significant in multivariable analysis, OR_A odds ratio adjusted for other significant factors obtained from backward stepwise logistic regression analysis using variables with p-value < 0.25 in univariate analysis as candidate variables, OR_U univariate odds ratio, ref Reference group of the categorical variable

^aThe dietary guidelines were based on the serving size recommendation in the Healthy Eating Food Pyramid for Elderly, developed by Department of Health, Hong Kong [47]. The five major food groups include grains (e.g. rice, noodles, starchy vegetables, bread and oat meals), vegetables (e.g. leafy vegetables, melon, mushroom), fruits (e.g. apple, banana, dried fruits), meats (e.g. beef, fish, egg) and milk (e.g. cow milk, yogurt, cheese) [46]. One bowl equals to 250-300 ml, one serving of vegetable equals to half bowl of cooked vegetables, one serving of fruit equals to one medium-sized fruit, one tael of meats equals to meats with the size of a table tennis ball and one glass equals to 240 ml [47]