Table 1.
Child interventions delivered via a robot for health or well-being.
| Author | Sample | Design, conditions (n)a | Duration | Measures | Outcomesb |
| Beran et al [32] | 57 Canadian vaccination patients (30 male, 53%), aged 4-9 years (mean 6.9, SD 1.3) | Robot CBT (28): Distraction before, during, and after injection; control (29): standard nurse administration | 1 sessionc at vaccination | Faces Pain Scale-Revised (FPS-R); Behavioral Approach—Avoidance Distress Scale (BAADS) | Robot Cognitive-Behavior Therapy versus control during session: <pain (FPS-R) from parent, child*, nurse*, and researcher and* <BAADS Distress**, Avoidance*** |
| Blanson Henkemans et al [34] | 5 Dutch type 1 diabetes patients (3 male, 60%) aged 9-12 years (mean 10.2, SD 1.3) | Game-like quizzes (10 out of 20 of the questions on diabetes each session); personal robot (3): eyes in favorite color, used child’s name, mentioned child’s favorite activity, asked opinion of game, if wanted to keep playing, etc; and neutral robot (2): no personalization | 3 sessions (45, 45, and 30 min) at 2-3 week intervals | Type 1 diabetes knowledge; health-related quality of life; and Mind Youth Questionnaire (MY-Q) | Across conditions, Pre to Session 3d: > correct diabetes questions* |
| Alemi and Meghdari [36] | 46 Iranian female students aged 12-13 years, with beginners’ level English | Individual randomization to classes; robot-assisted language learning (RALL; 30 in 2 groups); and control: teacher only (1 group of 16) | 10 × 1-hour sessions over 5 weeks | Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS); attitude questionnaire | RALL versus control at 5 weeks: >FLCAS (less anxiety)* |
| Alemi et al [37] | 11 Iranian oncology patients (1 male, 9%) aged 7-12 years (mean 9.5, SD 1.6) | Social robot-assisted therapy (SRAT, 6): robot took roles of doctor, chemo-hero, nurse, cook, ill kid; shared hopes and dreams, said goodbye and control: psychologist only (same content; 5) | 8 sessionsc over 1 month | Multidimensional Anxiety Children Scale (MASC); Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI); and Children’s Inventory of Anger (CIA) | SRAT versus control, pre versus 1 month: >falls in anxiety (MASC)**, depression (CDI)*, and anger (CIA)* |
| Blanson Henkemans et al [35] | 28 Dutch type 1 diabetes patients (13 male, 46%) aged 7-14 years (mean 11.0, SD=1.7) | Diabetes education quizzes; Personal robot (9): as per Blanson Henkemans et al [34]; neutral robot (8): no personalization; and control (11): no robot or quiz | Robot groups: 3 sessions (50, 40, and 40 min), 6 weeks apart | Diabetes knowledge; quiz rounds decided to play, desire to play in a fourth session, rated pleasure; behavior during interaction; and Basic Need Satisfaction in Relationships Scale | Combined robot groups versus controle, f: >correct diabetes knowledge questions after Session 3;*** personal versus neutral robot: >quiz rounds in Session 3; > number electing to play a fourth session; > on some positive behaviors during some sessions (eg, smiling at the robot in all sessions); > perceived self-determination on BSNR* during Session 3 |
| Jibb et al [33] | 40 Canadian cancer patients (24 male, 60%) aged 4-9 years (mean 6.2, SD 1.5) | Cognitive-behavioral robot (“MEDiPORT”, 19): supportive statements, deep breathing exercises; active distraction Robot (21): Introduction statement, dancing moves while singing | 1 session at subcutaneous needle insertion appointment | BAADS; Face Pain—Revised (FPS-R); Children's Fear Scale; and Acceptability questionnaire (Likert and free text) | Active distraction robot: < avoidance during nurse movement toward child**, at needle insertion;** and < parent-rated acceptability of time to conduct needle insertion* |
aAll studies used the NAO robot, and all were randomized controlled trials with individual randomization. Numbers are at allocation.
bEffects on measures not reported under results were not statistically significant.
cDuration was not reported.
dDifferences between effects of the 2 conditions were only reported descriptively.
eResults reported on 27 patients (1 neutral robot participant dropped out before session 1).
fPersonal versus neutral robot effect for knowledge not reported.
*P<.05.
**P<.01.
*** P≤.001.