TABLE 1.
General socio-demographic characteristics.
| Characteristic | Healthy (n = 81) | Non-DM (n = 299) | Pre DM (n = 70) | DM (n = 108) | χ2 | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 65 (62–69) | 66 (62–72) | 67 (62–72.75) | 66 (63–74) | 2.5 | 0.47 |
| Gender, female n (%) | 45 (55.6) | 187 (62.5) | 38 (54.3) | 70 (64.8) | 3.3 | 0.35 |
| BMI | 24.6 (22.2–26.9) | 24.6 (22.3–26.7) | 24.9 (23.3–27.4) | 25.5 (23–28.4) | 7.2 | 0.064 |
| Race | ||||||
| Chinese | 71 (14.8) | 265 (55.2) | 61 (12.7) | 83 (17.3) | ||
| Malay | 8 (17) | 23 (48.9) | 7 (14.9) | 10 (20.8) | 21.5 | 0.0014 |
| Indian ¬Δ | 2 (6.9) | 10 (34.5) | 2 (6.9) | 15 (51.7) | ||
| Smoking | ||||||
| Non/EX/smoker (n) | 64/10/7 | 247/31/21 | 55/8/7 | 85/13/10 | 1.55 | 0.96 |
| Non/EX/smoker (%) | 79/12.3/8.6 | 82.6/10.4/7 | 78.6/11.4/10 | 78.7/12/9.3 | ||
| ApoE-ε4 carrier, n (%) | 11 (14.1) | 56 (19.2) | 10 (14.5) | 6 (5.8)a | 10.4 | 0.014 |
| Glucose metabolism | ||||||
| HOMA2-IR C-peptide* | 0.73 (0.53–0.9) | 0.86 (0.64–1.1)b | 1 (0.84–1.46)c,d | 1.27 (0.94–1.90)a,e,f | 84.5 | 2.2–16 |
| Fasting glucose (mmol/L) | 4.8 (4.6–5.1) | 4.8 (4.5–5.1) | 5.85 (5.7–6.2)c,d | 7.2 (5.8–8.5)a,e,f | 296 | 2.2–16 |
| Fructosamine (NBT conc) | 0.24 (0.23–0.27) | 0.25 (0.23–0.27) | 0.27 (0.24–0.28)c,d | 0.29 (0.26–0.33)a,e,f | 58.4 | 1.28–12 |
*HOMA2-IR C-peptide (Homeostasis Model Assessment-Insulin Resistance C-peptide) was calculated using a fasting C-peptide and Fasting glucose level using a software developed by Diabetes Trials Unit, University of Oxford (Diabetes Trials Unit, 2017). The HOMA2-IR is expressed in arbitrary units. For each measured parameter the result in the table indicate a Median and interquartile range (IQR, 25–75th percentile) or number (%) as appropriate. Significant difference (P < 0.05) between two groups is indicated by the symbols, aDM vs. Non-DM, bNon-DM vs. Healthy, cPre-DM vs. Healthy, dPre-DM vs. Non-DM, eDM vs. Healthy, and fDM vs. Pre-DM. Indian have a significantly higher prevalence of diabetes when compared to Chinese (¬) and Malay (Δ) and no significant difference was observed between Chinese and Malay on the prevalence of diabetes.