Table 1.
Traditionally used antidiabetic plants found in the surveyed area
| Botanical names | Common names | Habit (habitat)/part used | Key bioactive constituents | Traditional method of use | Pharmacological evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apiaceae | |||||
| Anethum graveolens L. | Shatapushpa (S), Soyu (H), Indian Dill (E) | Herb (C)/seeds | Essential oil (mainly contains d-carvone, limonene and α-phellandrene) [7] | An infusion of seeds in water is taken orally |
(1) Aqueous seed extract (3.04 g/kg) decreased blood glucose level in ALX-induced diabetic mice when treated orally once a day for 15 days [8] (2) Hydro-alcoholic leaf extract (5% of total diet) reduced glucose levels, LDL-C, TC, AST, ALT, and fibrinogen in hyper-cholesterolemic rabbits in a 3 days oral treatment [9] (3) Hydro-alcoholic leaf extract (300 mg/kg) showed hypoglycemic effect similar to glibenclamide in ALX-induced type 1 diabetic rat [10] (4) Scientifically, it has antidiabetic effect in both humans and animals, and can be suggested for the diabetic patients [11] |
| Carum carvi L. | Kashmirajiraka (S), Krishna Jeera (A), Kala Jeera (H), Black cumin/Caraway (E) | Herb (C)/seeds | Essential oil (mainly contains carvone, limonene, anethole and carveol) [12] | An infusion of seeds in water is taken orally | Aqueous seeds extract (1 g/kg/day) decreased blood glucose level and alleviated the body weight loss of STZ-induced diabetic rat in a 21 days treatment [12] |
| Acanthaceae | |||||
| Barleria prionitis L. | Vjradanti (S) (H), Porcupine flower (E) | Shrub (C)/whole plant | Barlerinoside, barlerin, acetyl barlerin, barterin, scutellarin [13] | A decoction of the whole plant is taken with empty stomach | Alcoholic extract of the leaf (200 mg/kg) decreased blood glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin whereas increased insulin level and liver glycogen level in ALX-induced diabetic rat in a 14 days treatment [14] |
| Justicia adhatoda L. | Vasa/Vasaka (S), Adulsa/Adusa (H), Malabar nut (E), Bansoe (L) | Shrub (W)/leaves and roots | Vasicine (13), vasicinol (14), vasicinone [15] |
(1) Juice of leaves is used with an empty stomach (2) A decoction of roots (~ 50 g) with cow milk (125 mL) is taken daily in the morning |
Ethanol extract of leaves (100 mg/kg/oral) reduced in blood glucose level in ALX-induced diabetic rats in a 6 days treatment. The results were compared with glibenclamide (5 mg/kg). In addition, it showed a positive effect on the glucose tolerance, glycosylated haemoglobin, serum lipid profiles and body weight of diabetic rats [15] |
| Amaryllidaceae | |||||
| Allium cepa L. | Palandu (S), Piyaaz (H), Onion (E) | Herb (C)/bulbs | S-methylcysteine sulfoxide (1), allicin [16] | Two teaspoons of leaf juice are taken two times a day for several days |
(1) Regular use of fresh bulbs (50 g/day) reduced insulin requirement in a diabetic patient from 40 to 20 units a day [17] (2) Fresh cut slices (100 g/day) reduced fasting blood glucose levels in type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients when compared with insulin and glibenclamide in 4 h. Besides, at the same dose, it reduced hyperglycemia induced by dextrose (75 g) in type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients [18] (3) Oral administration of S-methylcysteine sulfoxide (200 mg/kg) ameliorated diabetic conditions in ALX induced diabetic rats when compared to glibenclamide and insulin in a 2 months treatment [19] |
| Allium sativum L. | Lasuna (S/L), Lahasun (H), Garlic (E) | Herb (C)/bulbs | S-allylcysteine sulfoxide (alliin) (2), allicin, allyl sulfide [20] | Juice of its bulbs with the leaves of bael (Aegle marmelos) is taken in the morning |
(1) Ethanol extract (500 mg/kg) decreased serum glucose, total cholesterol and triglycerides levels whereas increased serum insulin in STZ induced diabetic in rats in a 14 days oral treatment [21] (2) Alliin (200 mg/kg) ameliorated diabetic conditions in ALX induced diabetic rats when compared to glibenclamide and insulin in a 2 months treatment [19] |
| Allium stracheyi Baker | Jambu (S), Faran/Van faran (H), Jimbu pharan/Keer (L) | Herb (C)/whole plant | Essential oil (mainly contains 1,2 bis (methylthio) ethane, 2,4 dimethyl thiophene, dimethyl disulphide and dimethyl trisulphide) [22] | The crude bulbs or juice is orally taken for the treatment of diabetes | Not reported |
| Apocynaceae | |||||
| Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don | Sadapushpa (S); Sadabahar (H); Madagascar periwinkle/Vinca (E) | Herb (C)/whole plant | Vincristine, vinblastine [23] | A leaf infusion is taken twice a day for several days |
(1) Ethanol leaf extract (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) showed sugar lowering effect in STZ induced diabetic rats [24] (2) A suspension of dried leaf powder (100 mg/kg/day for 60 days) showed the antidiabetic effect on STZ induced diabetic rats [23] |
| Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. | Madhunashini/Meshashringi (S), Gurmar (H), Gymnema (E) | Climber (C)/whole plant | Gymnemic acid (12) [25] |
(1) A tea or decoction prepared from fresh leaves or dried leaves powder (one teaspoon) is taken in the morning for a long time (2) A mixture of Gymnema sylvestre leaf (100 g) with the fruits of Emblica officinalis, Belliric myrobolan, Chebulic myrobalan (triphla), seeds of Syzygium cumini, Momordica charantia and Trigonella foenum-graecum (50 g each) is taken orally with water after breakfast |
(1) The methanol extract of leaf and callus (200 mg/kg) increased the body weight, liver, pancreas and liver glycogen content in ALX-induced diabetic rats whereas gymnemic acid was found to regenerate β-cells in the diabetic rat (2) Ethanol leaf extract (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) was found to possess a blood sugar lowering effect in STZ-induced diabetic rats [24] |
| Asparagaceae | |||||
| Asparagus racemosus Willd. | Shatapadi/Satamuli (S), Satavare (H), Butter milk root (E) | Climber (W/C)/tuberous roots | Shatvarin I–VI, aspargamine A [26] |
(1) The tuberous roots are boiled with water and this decoction is taken orally once a day (2) Its dried root powder with Gymnema sylvestre leaves is taken twice a day, for 30 days |
(1) The ethanol root extract (30 μg/ml) stimulated insulin secretion in isolated perfused rat pancreas, isolated rat islet cells and clonal β-cells in vitro [27] (2) Ethanol root extract (1.25 g/kg) improved glucose tolerance in diabetic rats with an oral sucrose load of 2.5 g/kg. It also suppressed postprandial hyperglycaemia after sucrose ingestion and reversibly increased unabsorbed sucrose content throughout the gut. Besides, it inhibited the absorption of glucose during in situ gut perfusion with glucose. The extract enhanced glucose transport and insulin action in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (3) Oral administration for 28 days decreased serum glucose, increased pancreatic insulin, plasma insulin, liver glycogen and total oxidant status in STZ induced diabetic rats [27] |
| Berberidaceae | |||||
| Berberis aristata DC. | Daruharidra (S), Daru haldi (H), Indian barberry (E), Kingod (L) | Shrub (W)/roots and stems | Berberine [28] |
(1) A decoction of roots or stem bark with water (5–10 mL) is taken twice a day for 1–2 weeks (2) A decoction of B. aristata root and Terminalia chebula fruits is taken orally in the morning |
Aqueous ethanol root extract (250 mg/kg) lowered the blood glucose level in ALX induced diabetic rats. It also increased the glucokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activities and decreased glucose-6-phosphatase activity in diabetic rats which play a critical role in glucose homeostasis [29] |
| Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) T.S.Ying (Syn. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle) | Himalayan mayapple/American mandrake (E), Ban kakri (H/L) | Herb (C)/roots | Podophyllotoxin (podophyllin), quercetin 3-O-beta-d-galactopyranoside [30] | Half teaspoon of the powder of A. parviflora leaves, Aconitum heterophyllum tuber and Podophyllum hexandrum roots is given twice a day in the morning and at night after meals up to 3 months | Not reported |
| Combretaceae | |||||
| Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. | Bibhitaki (S), Baheda (H), Bellric Myrobalan (E), Bedu (L) | Tree (W/C)/fruits and bark | Ellericanin, gallic acid, ellargic acid [31] |
(1) A tea/decoction prepared from fresh leaves or dried leaves powder (one teaspoon) is taken in the morning for a long time (2) A mixture of Gymnema sylvestre leaf (100 g) with the fruits of Emblica officinalis, Belliric myrobolan, Chebulic myrobalan (triphla), seeds of Syzygium cumini, Momordica charantia and Trigonella foenum-graecum (50 g each) is taken orally with water after breakfast (2) The extract/infusion of Triphala powder is taken with almonds in the morning |
(1) The extract of dried fruits stimulated basal insulin output and potentiated glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in the clonal pancreatic beta-cell line (BRIN-BD11). It also displayed insulin-mimetic activity and enhanced insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The extract also produced a decrease in starch digestion (in vitro) and inhibited protein glycation at a concentration of 50 mg/mL [32] (2) The oral administration of methanol extract of dried fruits (100 mg/kg) reduced blood glucose level in ALX induced diabetic rats in an 11 days study [33] |
| Compositae | |||||
| Artemisia indica Willd. | Pati (H) | Shrub (W)/aerial parts | Essential oil (mainly contains β-caryophyllene, germacrene D, caryophyllene oxide and cis-β-elemenone [34] | A decoction of leaves with water is used in the morning | The oral administration of hydro-methanolic extracts of aerial parts (200 and 400 mg/kg) and its chloroform fraction (200 mg/kg) for 15 days showed a reduction in blood glucose level of STZ induced diabetic rats [35] |
| Artemisia roxburghiana Wall. ex Besser | Roxburgh’s Wormwood (E), Kuranja/Kinid (L) | Herb (W)/aerial parts | Betulin (4), betulinic acid (5), artemisinin (6) [36] | The decoction of aerial parts is used either alone or in combination with the dried fruits of Zizyphus jujube |
(1) The methanol extract of aerial parts (100 µg/mL), betulinic acid (IC50 3.49 µM) and betulin (IC50 4.17 µM) showed protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) enzyme inhibitory activity in vitro [37] (2) The ethanol leaves extract (1 μg/mL) showed insulin secretagogue activity at a concentration of when tested for insulin release from insulinoma cell line (INS-1 cells) [38] (3) Artemisinin showed trypsin inhibitory activity [36] |
| Artemisia vulgaris L. | Dhamanaka (S), Douna (H), Indian Wormwood/Mugwort (E) | Herb (W)/whole plant | Essential oil (mainly contains α-pinen, menthol, β-eudesmol and spathulenol) [39] | A decoction of leaves with water is used in the morning | Oral administration of ethanol leaves extract (250 and 500 mg/kg) for 16 weeks reduced the renal impairment in diabetic nephropathy rats through anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant and protective morphological changes in STZ induced diabetes rats [40] |
| Euphorbiaceae | |||||
| Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg. | Raktanga (S), Kampillaka (A), Kama (H), Monkey face tree (E), Ruena (L) | Tree (W)/fruits | Bergenin, friedelin, lupeol, betulin-3-acetate corotoxigenin rhamnoside, coroglaucigenin rhamnoside [41] | A decoction of fresh fruits is taken in the morning and evening before a meal | Oral administration of hydro-ethanol bark extract (200 and 400 mg/kg) for 30 days increased body weight and insulin level, and decreased blood glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin on STZ induced diabetic rats [42] |
| Lamiaceae | |||||
| Mentha piperita L. | Pudina (H), Peppermint (E) | Herb (C)/whole plant | Essential oil (mainly contains menthol, menthone, menthyl acetate and menthofuran [43] | Juice of leaves in water is taken twice a day for a long time | Oral administration of peppermint leaf juice (0.29 g/kg/day) for 21 days decreased the blood glucose level of ALX induced diabetic rats [44] |
| Ocimum gratissimum L. | Ajaka (S), Ram tulsi/Ban tulsi (H), Wild basil (E) | Herb (W/C)/whole plant | Essential oil (mainly contains eugenol and methyl eugenol) [45] |
(1) A tea prepared from leaves is taken regularly for about 1 month (2) Fresh leaves are chewed after a meal |
Aqueous leaf extract (250 mg/kg) showed anti-diabetic activity against fortified diet-fed STZ induced diabetic rats [46] |
| Ocimum tenuiflorum L. | Tulsi (S/H), Holy basil /Indian basil (E) | Sub-shrub (C)/whole plant | Essential oil (mainly contains β-ocimene, 1,8-cineole, camphor, Limonene, Linalool, Methyl-eugenol and β-Caryophyllene) [47] |
(1) One teaspoon of powdered dried leaves with an equal ratio of Azadirachta indica leaves with water is taken thrice a day for 15 days (2) A herbal tea prepared with leaves is also used |
(1) Ethanol leaf extract (200 and 400 mg/kg) showed a blood sugar lowering effect on STZ-induced diabetic rats [24] (2) Hydro-alcoholic leaf extract (250 and 500 mg/kg) showed the antidiabetic effect on STZ and nicotinamide induced diabetic rats [48] |
| Ajuga parviflora Benth. | Neelkanthi (A), Small-flowered Bugleweed (E), Bishkopra (L) | Herb (W/C)/whole plant | Ajugarin I, deoxyajugarin I, ajugarin I, chlorohydrin, 3β-acetoxy-clerodinin C [49] | Half teaspoon of the powder of A. parviflora leaves, Aconitum heterophyllum tuber and Podophyllum hexandrum roots is given twice a day in the morning and at night after meals up to 3 months | Ethanol extract of the whole plant showed in vitro inhibitory effect on alpha-amylase with an IC50 value of 110.18 µg/mL. In addition, the extract (60 mg/kg) showed anti-diabetic by reducing blood sugar level and body weight in ALX-induced diabetic rats [50] |
| Vitex negundo L. | Nirgundi (S/H), Five-leaved chaste (E), Shimaloo/Somi (L) | Shrub (W)/whole plant | Casticin, isoorientin, chrysophenol D, luteolin, essential oil (mainly contains sabinene, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, β-caryophyllene, α-guaiene and globulol) [51] | The decoction of the whole plant is taken twice a day after meal |
(1) A crude polysaccharide fraction (50 mg/kg) isolated from the leaves reduced food intake, body weight and fasting glucose levels in db/db mice in a 7 days study [52] (2) An iridoid glucoside (50 mg/kg) isolated from V. negundo leaves reduced the levels of plasma glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin and increased in the levels of insulin and haemoglobin in STZ induced diabetic rats in a 30 days study when compared with the glibenclamide (5 mg/kg) which was used as a positive control. Besides, it increased glycolytic enzymes level and glycogen content and decreased the levels of gluconeogenic enzymes in the liver of diabetic rats [53] |
| Leguminosae | |||||
| Bauhinia variegata L. | Kachnara (S), Kachnar (H), Camel’s foot tree (E) | Tree (W/C)/stem bark and flowers | Naringenin, quercetin 3-methyl ether, luteolin, rutin, isoquercitrin, daucosterol, 2′-hydroxy4′,6′-dimethoxy-3,4-methylenedioxy chalcone, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside [54] | About 10 mL of the bark juice (overnight soaked with water) is taken in the morning before a meal | Aqueous leaves extract (500 and 1000 mg/kg) decreased plasma glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, creatinine and blood urea nitrogen level of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes in high-fat diet and STZ induced diabetic rats in a 28 days study. Besides, it decreased the necrotic changes in the pancreatic tissue [54] |
| Trigonella foenum-graecum L. | Methika (S), Methi (H/L), Fenugreek (E) | Herb (C)/whole plant | Sotolone (16), diosgenin (20), trigonelline (21), 4-hydroxyisoleucine [55] |
(1) The overnight soaked seeds (2 teaspoons) are used in the morning (2) Seeds and leaves are included in food preparations to treat diabetes (3) Seeds powder is used with cold water (4) The mixture of grind fruits of Triphla and seeds of Syzygium cumini, Momordica charantia and Trigonella foenum-graecum (50 g each) mixed with Gymnema sylvestre (100 g) is taken orally with water in the morning after breakfast |
(1) In vitro study demonstrated that the aqueous seed extract (100 ng/mL) increased the glucose uptake through upregulation of mRNA expression levels of glucose transporter (GLUT-2) and sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP1C) in HepG2 cells. It also increased the activities of glycogen kinase and glycogen synthase enzymes by imparting modifications to downstream insulin signalling pathways. In addition, its seeds extract (5–20 µg/mL) imparted insulin mimicking properties by increasing the intracellular creatinine levels in L6C11 muscle cells (2) Diosgenin (1–10 µM) isolated from seeds improved the hyperglycemia and diabetic condition by promoting the adipocyte differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells in vitro. It increased the mRNA expression levels of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP), peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ), and its target genes adipocyte protein 2, lipoprotein lipase, and glucose transporter-4. Besides, 4-hydroxyisoleucine and sotolone isolated from seeds were also found anti-diabetic at various concentrations [55] |
| Malvaceae | |||||
| Bombax ceiba L. | Shalmali (S), Semal (H), Silk Cotton tree (E) | Tree (W/C)/fruits and flowers | Shamimin, isohemigossylic acid lactone-2-methyl ether, ceibanaphthaquinone, hentriacontane [56] |
(1) One teaspoon of powdered flowers and fruits is used twice a day after meal (2) A dish prepared from its fruits is useful in diabetes |
The ethanol leaves extract (140 and 280 mg/kg) showed hypoglycemic activity on STZ-induced diabetic rats and alleviated dyslipidemia. The extract had a considerable protective effect on pancreatic β-cells and a stimulatory effect on insulin secretion from the remaining pancreatic β-cells [57] |
| Meliaceae | |||||
| Azadirachta indica A.Juss. | Nimba (S), Neem (H), Indian Lilac (E) | Tree (C)/all parts | Avicularin (7), castalagin (9), nimbin, nimbidin, azadirachtin, nimbinin [58] |
(1) Juice of stem bark is mixed with an equal amount of fresh cow milk, taken for 7 days early in the morning with empty stomach (2) Dried and powdered leaves alone or in combination with black pepper are given thrice a day for 15 days (3) Roasted bark powder with buttermilk once in a day for 40 days (4) Fresh leaves (4–5) or leaves paste (one teaspoon) are useful in diabetes |
(1) Acetone, ethanol and water extract of leaves showed in vitro α-amylase inhibition at different concentrations range from 1.25 to 10 mg/mL, aqueous extract was found least active with an IC50 value of 9.15 mg/mL. However, these extracts were found poorly active against α-glucosidase inhibition [59] (2) Oral administration of ethanol leaves extract (200 and 400 mg/kg) showed blood sugar lowering activity in diabetic rats [24] (3) Chloroform leaves extract showed oral glucose tolerance activity and reduced the intestinal glucosidase activity in STZ-induced diabetic mice. It increased glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity and hepatic, skeletal muscle glycogen content, after 21 days of treatment. The study revealed the regeneration of insulin-producing cells and a corresponding increase in the plasma insulin and c-peptide levels with the treatment [60] |
| Melia azedarach L. | Mahaneem (S), Bakain (H), Persian lilac (E) | Tree (W/C)/all parts | Azedarachic acid (15), nicotinic acid, gallic acid, para-coumaric acid, vanillic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, fatty acids (caproic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acid) [61] | The decoction of aerial parts is taken in the morning |
(1) Bioassay-guided fractions and isolates of fruits and leaves showed inhibitory effects on protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B enzyme as well as glucose uptake stimulation on C2Cl2 myoblasts cells in vitro [62] (2) Aqueous leaf extracts (300, and 400 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) displayed anti-diabetic on type 2 mice [63] |
| Menispermaceae | |||||
| Cissampelos pareira L. | Patha (S), midwife’s herb (E), Padi/Parh (L) | Climber (W/C)/whole plant | Pelosine, l-curine, hayatinine, hayatidine, cissampareine, cissamine, dicentrine, cycleanine, insularine, cycleanine, nuciferine, bulbocarpine, corytuberine, magniflorine, norimeluteine, pareitropone, berberine (8), reserpine [64] | The dried root powder (half teaspoon) is taken with water once a day for 40 days | The hydro-alcoholic leaves extract (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) showed anti-diabetic activity by decreasing fasting blood glucose and increasing the body weight of on STZ-induced diabetic rats when compared to glibenclamide (5 mg/kg) [65] |
| Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers | Purha (H), Gindaru/Kuti (L) | Climber (W/C)/whole plant | Gindarine, gindaricine, gindarinine, cycleanine, columbamine, jatrorrhizine, magnoflorine, stepharanine, dehydrocorydalmine, pronuciferine, corydalmine, stepholidine, roemerine, palmatrubine, N-desmethylcycleanine, capaurine, corynoxidine, 4ʹ,5,7-trihydroxy-8-C-glucosylisoflavone, glabradine, gindarudine, 11-hydroxypalmatine (19), 8-(4ʹ-methoxybenzyl)-xylopinine, cepharamine, tuduranine [66] | The dried tuber powder (half teaspoon) is taken with water once a day for 40 days | Oral administration of 11-hydroxypalmatine (50 and 100 mg/kg), isolated from tubers, reduced blood glucose level in ALX-induced diabetic mice [67] |
| Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. | Guduchi (S), Giloy (H), Heart-leaved moonseed (E) | Climber (W/C)/whole plant | Giloin, giloinin giloinsterol, tinosporine, magnoflorine, tembetarine, berberine (8), choline, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, beberine, tembeterine, choline [68] |
(1) One cup of aqueous infusion of stem buds is taken twice a day before a meal (2) 1 mL juice of T. sinensis with 5 g pulps of Aloe vera is taken for several days (3) 25 mL of stem juice in an equal amount of water is taken twice a day before the meal |
The oral administration of aqueous root extract (5 and 7.5 g/kg) caused a reduction in the glucose level of blood and urine of ALX induced diabetic rats. It also decreased hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase and serum acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, and lactate dehydrogenase in diabetic rats [69] |
| Moraceae | |||||
| Ficus auriculata Lour. | Fagoora/Timla (H), Roxburgh fig (E) | Tree (W/C)/fruits and leaves | Betulinic acid, lupeol, stigmasterol, bergapten, scopoletin [70] | Infusion (half cup) of leaves is taken in the morning | The methanol leaves extract (300 and 600 mg/kg) produced a significant reduction in blood glucose level in STZ induced diabetic mice. It also ameliorated the histological damage of Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas caused by STZ [71] |
| Ficus religiosa L. | Ashwattha (S), Peepal (H), Sacred fig (E) | Tree (W)/bark, leaves, stem, fruits and latex | Bergapten, bergaptol, lupeol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, lanosterol, campesterol, octacosanol, methyl oleonate, lupen-3-one [72] | The decoction (25 mL) of bark is used in the morning after meal | The aqueous bark extract showed an anti-diabetic effect in STZ-induced diabetic rats by decreasing the blood glucose, serum triglyceride and total cholesterol levels, and increasing serum insulin, body weight and glycogen content in the liver and skeletal muscle. The extract up to 2000 mg/kg was considered safe [72] |
| Morus alba L. | Tula/Brahmandaru (S), Sahatoot (H), White mulberry (E), Tut/Tutri (L) | Tree (C)/leaf, root, bark and fruits | 1-Deoxy-nojirimycin, isoquercitrin, astragalin (17), rutin [73] | One cup of tea prepared from leaves (or root/bark) is used with an empty stomach |
(1) Ethanol leaves extract (600 mg/kg) has therapeutic effects in STZ induced diabetic rats and can restore the diminished β cell numbers in a 35 days study [74] (2) Fruit polysaccharides fractions showed marked antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic activities and repaired the damaged pancreatic tissues of the diabetic rats [75] |
| Phyllanthaceae | |||||
| Phyllanthus emblica L. | Amalaki (S), Amla (H), Indian gooseberry/Emblic myrobalan (E), Aunla (L) | Tree (C)/fruits | Gallic acid, glucogallin, 3,6-di-O-galloyl-d-glucose, 1,6-di-O-galloyl-βd-glucose, chebulinic acid, chebulagic acid, corilagin, 3-ethylgallic acid, isostrictiniin, l-malic acid 2-O-gallate, mucic acid 2-O-gallate, mucic acid 1,4-lactone 2-O-gallate, phyllaemblicin A–C, phyllaemblic acid, phyllaemblic acid B and C, phyllaemblicin D, 2-carboxylmethylphenol 1-O-βd-glucopyranoside, 2,6-dimethoxy-4-(2-hydroxyethyl)phenol 1-O-βd-glucopyranoside;ascorbic acid, emblicanin A and B, punigluconin, pedunculagin, [76] |
(1) The mixture of grind fruits of Triphla and seeds of Syzygium cumini, Momordica charantia and Trigonella foenum-graecum (50 g each) mixed with Gymnema sylvestre (100 g) is taken orally with water in the morning after breakfast (2) The infusion of Triphala powder (fruits of P. officinalis, T. chebula and T. bellirica) is taken twice a day before a meal |
The oral administration of methanol fruits extract (100 mg/kg) reduced blood glucose level in ALX induced diabetic rats within 4 h at single doses and at multi-doses up to 11 days [33] |
| Pinaceae | |||||
| Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don | Indradaru (S), Devdara (H), Himalayan cedar (E), Diwar/Kelon (L) | Tree (W/C)/heartwood, bark, leaves | Himachald, allohimachalol, himadarol, centdard, isocentdarol, dewarene, dewardiol, dewarenol, taxifolin, cedeodarin, dihydromyricetin, cetrin, cedrinoside [77] | A half cup of the decoction of the bark is taken twice after the meal | The ethanol bark extract (250 and 500 mg/kg) decreased blood glucose level, SGPT, SGOT, cholesterol and triglycerides in STZ induced diabetes mice. At the dose of 500 mg/kg, its effect was found comparable to that of glibenclamide (10 mg/kg). The extract also enhanced the regeneration of Islet of Langerhans in the pancreas and restoration of the normal cellular size of diabetes mice [77] |
| Plantaginaceae | |||||
| Digitalis purpurea L. | Hritpatri (S), Tilpushpi (H), Foxglove (E) | Herb (C)/leaf | Digoxigenin, digitonin (11), digitoxin, digoxin, ouabain, oleandrin, proscillaridin [78] | Leaf powder is taken in the morning but in less quantity under the observation of a traditional health practitioner. Higher concentration is believed to be toxic. Not recommended for children below 12 years | Digitonin (15 mg/kg) isolated from seeds improved glucose tolerance in high-sucrose-induced hyperglycaemic rats [78] |
| Plantago ovate Forssk. | Ashwagola (S), Isabgol (H), Spogel seeds/desert Indianwheat/Psyllium (E), Sabgul (L) | Shrub (C)/seeds and seed husk | Xylose, lilonic acid, galacturonic acid arabinose, uronic acid [79] | Seed and husk are taken twice a day after meal | The oral administration of aqueous husk extract (500 mg/kg) improved glucose tolerance in type 1 and type 2 diabetic rats. It suppressed the postprandial blood glucose level and retarded small intestinal absorption without inducing the influx of sucrose into the large intestine when administered with a sucrose solution [80] |
| Poaceae | |||||
| Hordeum vulgare L. | Yava (S), Jav/Jau (H), Barley (E) | Herb (C)/seeds | Caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, 8,5’-diferulic acid, catechin-7-O-glucoside, saponarin, catechin, procyanidin B3, procyanidin C2, prodelphinidin B3, hordenine [81] | One to two pieces of bread prepared from the flour of Barley and Chana (Cicer arietinum L.) is taken per day for several days | The oral administration of aqueous seeds extract reduced the fasting serum glucose level of STZ-induced diabetic rats in a 28-days study [82] |
| Polygonaceae | |||||
| Rheum australe D. Don (Syn. Rheum emodii Wall. ex Meisn.) | Amlaparni (S), Dolu/Revandchini (H), Himalayan rhubarb (E) | Herb (C)/underground parts | Chrysophanol, physcion, rhein, emodin, aloe emodin [83] | Decoction (25 mL) of underground stem and root is taken in the morning after a meal for several days | Chrysophanol, physcion, rhein, emodin, and aloe emodin (2 mg/kg each) isolated from rhizomes showed antidiabetic activity in STZ induced diabetic rats; aloe emodin exhibited maximum blood glucose lowering effect. In the α-glucosidase inhibitory assay, only emodin was found active with the inhibitory effect of 93% [83] |
| Terminalia chebula Retz. | Haritaki (S), Harad (H), Chebulic myrobalan (E) | Tree (C)/fruits and bark | Chebulagic acid, chebulinic acid, Terflavin B [31] |
(1) The mixture of grind fruits of Triphla and seeds of Syzygium cumini, Momordica charantia and Trigonella foenum-graecum (50 g each) mixed with Gymnema sylvestre (100 g) is taken orally with water in the morning after breakfast (2) The infusion of Triphala powder is taken in the morning after meal |
The oral administration of methanol fruits extract (100 mg/kg) significantly reduced blood glucose level ALX induced diabetic rats within 4 h at single doses and at multi-doses up to 11 days [33] |
| Ranunculaceae | |||||
| Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle | Ativisha (A/S), Atish (H), Indian Atish (E) | Herb (C)/roots | Aatisine, dihydroatisine, hetisined, heteratisine, 12-secohetisan-2-ol, N-succinoylanthranilate, atesinol 6-benzoylheterastine, N-diethyl-N-formyllaconitine, methyl aconitine, aconitine, anthorine [84] | The powder of Atish roots, Ajuga parviflora leaves and Podophyllum hexandrum roots is given twice a day (half teaspoonful) early in the morning and at night after meals up to 3 months | The oral administered of methanol root extract (200 mg/kg/day for 28 days) increased the levels of plasma glycoproteins and also decreased the level of sialic acid and elevated levels of hexose, hexosamine and fructose in the liver and kidney of STZ induced diabetic rats [85] |
| Rosaceae | |||||
| Rubus ellipticus Sm. | Golden/yellow Himalayan raspberry (E), Hinsar/Hisalu (L) | Shrub (W)/fruits and roots | Gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid (18), caffeic acid [86] | One teaspoon powder of roots is taken twice a day for 1 month | The petroleum ether, ethanol and aqueous extracts of fruits (200 mg/kg each) exhibited antidiabetic activity using GTT in ALX induced diabetes rats [87] |
| Rubiaceae | |||||
| Rubia cordifolia L. | Aruna (S), Manjistha (A), Manjeeth/Majith (H), Indian madder (E), Charchora (L) | Climber (C)/roots | Cordifoliol, cordifodiol, rubiacordone, purpurin, alizarin [88] | The infusion (25 mL) of roots is taken once a day for 40 days | The oral administration of aqueous root extract (1 g/kg/day for 8 weeks) showed an anti-hyperglycemic effect in STZ induced diabetic rats [89] |
| Rutaceae | |||||
| Zanthoxylum armatum DC. | Tejohva/Tejovati (S), Tejbal (H), Yellow wood Tree timaru (L) | Shrub (W)/bark fruit and root | Essential oil (mainly contains linalool and limonene), armatamide [90] | One teaspoon powder of roots or stems is taken twice a day for 1 month | Methanol extracts of the fruits, leaves and bark showed α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in vitro. All the extracts at 500 mg/kg for 15 days were found to decrease fasting blood glucose levels in ALX induced diabetic mice [91] |
| Saxifragaceae | |||||
| Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. | Pashanabheda (S), Patharchat (H), Hairy Bergenia (E) | Herb (W)/whole plant | Bergenin Bergenin, catechin, gallic acid, tannic acid [92] | Decoction (half cup) of aerial parts is taken before breakfast |
(1) The hypoglycemic activity of aqueous, ethanol, butanol, chloroform, ethyl acetate and hexane extracts of leaves and root were evaluated by measuring blood glucose level, at the dose of 200 mg/kg (2) The aqueous and ethanol extracts of leaves and ethanol and hexane extracts of root at 200 mg/kg caused up to 70% decrease in blood glucose level in STZ-induced diabetic rats [93] |
| Solanaceae | |||||
| Nicotiana tabacum L. | Gucchaphala (S), Tamakhu (H), Tobacco (E) | Sub-shrub (C)/dried leaves | Nicotine, nornicotine, anatabine, rutin, chlorogenic acid, anabasine, myosmine, cotinine, tabacinine, tabacine, 2,3,6-trimethyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2-methylquinone, 2-napthylamine, propionic acid, anthalin, anethole, acrolein, cembrene, choline, nicotelline, nicotianine, pyrene [94] |
(1) The aqueous decoction (25 mL) of leaves is taken in the morning after meal (2) The aqueous decoction of leaves with Bidens pilosa seeds, Alstonia congensis roots and potash is taken every 3 days interval before breakfast |
The aqueous leaves extract was found an effective inhibitor of α-amylase (IC50 5.70 mg/mL) while acetone leaves extract displayed remarkable inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase (IC50 4.50 mg/mL) in vitro [95] |
| Solanum virginianum L. | Kantakari (S), Pili kateri (H), Yellow-fruit nightshade (E), Konkaru (L) | Herb (W)/whole plant | Lupeol, solasodine and its glycoside, tomatidenol, diosgenin (20), carpesterol, α-solamargine [96] | The aqueous decoction (25 mL) of aerial parts is taken in the morning after meal |
(1) The methanol leaves extract (200 mg/kg) showed antidiabetic activity against ALX induced diabetic rats [97] (2) Lupeol, isolated from stem bark suppressed the progression of diabetes in rats. Its treatment caused decreasing glycated haemoglobin, serum glucose and nitric oxide in a 21 days study [98] (3) The aqueous fruits extract showed hypoglycemic activity in diabetic rats [99] |
| Taxaceae | |||||
| Taxus baccata L. | Manduparni (S), Talispatra (A), Gallu/Thuno (H), Himalayan yew (E) | Tree (W/C)/bark and seed | Taxol, taxine A and B, baccatin III and V, ephedrine [100] | The aqueous decoction (25 mL) of bark and seeds is taken twice a day for 40 days | Aqueous methanol leaves extract inhibited rat intestinal sucrase, maltase and porcine pancreatic α-amylase by 17.3, 35.4 and 25.8%, respectively at the concentration of 15 mg/mL in vitro [101] |
| Urticaceae | |||||
| Urtica dioica L. | Vrscikali (S), Stinging nettle/Nettle leaf (E), Bichchhu ghaas (H), Kandadli (L) | Herb (W)/whole plant | β-Sitosterol, ferulic acid, dotriacotane, erucic acid, ursolic acid, scopoletin, rutin, quercetin, p-hydroxylbenzalcohol [102] | The juice or tea prepared from leaves is taken once a day after meal | Aqueous leaves extract (300 mg/kg) showed a reduction in the blood glucose level in STZ-induced diabetic rats using a GTT assay [103] |
| Xanthorrhoeaceae | |||||
| Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. | Gritkumari (S), Gheekuwar (H), Indian aloe (E) | Herb (C)/leaves | Aloin, aloesin, emodin, aloesone lophenol (3), 24-methyl-lophenol, 24-ethyl-lophenol, cycloartanol, 24-methylene-cycloartanol [104] |
(1) The leaf gel (100 g) with water and lemon juice is taken in after breakfast for several days (2) One mL juice of Tinospora sinensis with 5 g pulps of Aloe vera is taken for several days |
(1) The oral administration of leaves extract (300 mg/kg/day for 3 weeks) to STZ-induced diabetic rats showed restoration of blood glucose levels with a concomitant increase in insulin levels. The treatment also increased the number, diameter, volume and area of the pancreatic islets of diabetic rats [105] (2) The leaf gel (20, 30 and 50 mg/mL) and its phytosterols (lophenol, 24-methyl-lophenol, 24-ethyl-lophenol, cycloartanol, and 24-methylene-cycloartanol) showed anti-diabetic activity in type 2 diabetic mice. The phytosterols also reduced the HbA1c levels in mice in a 28 days study [104] |
| Zingiberaceae | |||||
| Curcuma longa L. | Haridra (S), Haldi (H), Turmeric (E) | Herb (C)/rhizome | Curcumin (22), demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin, ar-turmerone [106] |
(1) A small bit of raw rhizomes is chewed empty stomach (2) The powder of dried rhizomes (1 teaspoon) or paste of fresh rhizomes (1 teaspoon) is used in food preparations |
(1) The volatile oil obtained from the rhizome inhibited α-glucosidase enzymes more effectively than the acarbose (a standard drug) in vitro. A major volatile constituent (ar-turmerone) also had potent α-glucosidase (IC50 = 0.28 μg) and α-amylase (IC50 = 24.5 μg) inhibition [107] (2) Curcumin, a phenolic compound isolated from the rhizome reduced blood glucose and the levels of glycosylated haemoglobin in diabetic rats through the regulation of the polyol pathway. It suppressed oxidative stress and inflammation, and also suppressed increased bone resorption through the inhibition of osteoclastogenesis and expression of the AP-1 transcription factors, c-fos and c-jun, in diabetic animals. It showed a beneficial role in the diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction and induced a down-regulation of nuclear factor-kappa B. It has a protective role against advanced glycation as well as collagen cross-linking [108] |
| Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe | Sugandha moola (S), Kachoor (H), Zedoary/White turmeric (E) | Herb (C)/rhizome | Curcumin (22), furanodiene, furanodienone, zedorone, curzerenone, curzeone, germacrone, 13‐hydroxy germacrone, dihydrocurdione, curcumenone, zedoaronediol [109] | The powdered rhizome (1 teaspoon) is taken with water twice a day for once a month | The methanol extract of rhizomes (200 and 400 mg/kg) reduced the serum glucose level in glucose-loaded mice using a GTT assay [110] |
| Hedychium spicatum Sm. | Shati (S), Kapur Kachari (H), Spiked ginger lily (E), Seerh (L) | Herb (C)/rhizome | Essential oil (mainly contains 1,8‐cineole α- and β‐pinene, linalool, 10‐epi‐γ‐eudesmol and β‐slinene), hedychenone, spicatanol (10), 6-oxo-7,11,13-labdatrien-16,15-olide, picatanol methyl ether, hedychenone, 7-hydroxy hedychenone, yunnacoronarin A and D, 7-acetoxy hedychenone, hedychia lactone B [111] | The powdered rhizome (1 teaspoon) is taken with water twice a day for once a month |
(1) Spicatanol isolated from rhizomes displayed rat intestinal α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in vitro by 89% at a dose of 100 µg/mL [112] (2) The oral dose of essential oil obtained from rhizomes (0.3 mL for 14 days) reduced blood glucose and urea level in ALX induced diabetic rats. It was also observed that the Islets of Langerhans regained their normal shape after 14 days of treatment [113] |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | Ardarka/Moolaja sunthi (S), Adarakh (H), Ginger (E), Aaddo (L) | Herb (C)/rhizome | Gingerols, shogaol [114] | Rhizome in the form of a tea, juice or food is taken daily for a long time | The rhizome juice (4 mL/kg/day for 6 weeks) increased insulin levels and decreased fasting glucose levels in STZ induced type 1 diabetic rats. The juice also decreased serum cholesterol, serum triglyceride and blood pressure in rats [115] |
H Hindi, E English, A Ayurvedic, L local, S Sanskrit, C cultivated, W wild