Table 3.
Autoregressive and Cross-lagged Effects of Violence Exposure, Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, and Delinquency with Covariates
| Wave 2 New Violence Exposure | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | p | β | p | β | p | |
| African American vs White | .11 | <.001 | .04 | .066 | .03 | .273 |
| Hispanic vs White | .09 | <.001 | .05 | .011 | .04 | .045 |
| Age in Years | .07 | <.001 | −.05 | .027 | −.05 | .024 |
| Gender (Female vs Male) | −.02 | .409 | <.01 | .850 | −.01 | .599 |
| Wave 1 PTSS | .09 | <.001 | .07 | <.001 | ||
| Wave 1 Delinquency | .16 | <.001 | .15 | <.001 | ||
| Wave 1 Violence Exposure | .30 | <.001 | .29 | <.001 | ||
| Caregiver Perception of Neighborhood Safety | −.04 | .087 | ||||
| Adolescent Perception of Neighborhood Safety | −.05 | .033 | ||||
| Head of Household Marital Status (Married vs Not) | −.10 | .056 | ||||
| Head of Household Education | −.07 | .034 | ||||
| Poverty (High vs Low Income) | −.16 | .043 | ||||
| Wave 2 PTSS | ||||||
| African American vs White | .07 | .001 | .03 | .167 | .03 | .281 |
| Hispanic vs White | .06 | .021 | .01 | .564 | .01 | .725 |
| Age in Years | .10 | <.001 | .01 | .746 | .01 | .531 |
| Gender (Female vs Male) | .15 | <.001 | .10 | <.001 | .11 | <.001 |
| Wave 1 Violence Exposure | .08 | <.001 | .08 | <.001 | ||
| Wave 2 New Violence Exposure | .26 | <.001 | .33 | <.001 | ||
| Wave 1 PTSS | .47 | <.001 | .46 | <.001 | ||
| Caregiver Perception of Neighborhood Safety | .05 | .167 | ||||
| Adolescent Perception of Neighborhood Safety | .03 | .314 | ||||
| Head of Household Marital Status (Married vs Not) | .35 | <.001 | ||||
| Head of Household Education | .15 | .003 | ||||
| Poverty (High vs Low Income) | .49 | <.001 | ||||
| Wave 2 Delinquency | ||||||
| African American vs White | .13 | .007 | −.02 | .741 | −.04 | .448 |
| Hispanic vs White | .08 | .028 | −.01 | .788 | −.02 | .599 |
| Age in Years | .08 | .023 | −.11 | .002 | −.09 | .018 |
| Gender (Female vs Male) | −.14 | <.001 | −.01 | .898 | <.01 | .952 |
| Wave 1 Violence Exposure | .02 | .700 | <.01 | .952 | ||
| Wave 2 New Violence Exposure | .16 | <.001 | .19 | <.001 | ||
| Wave 1 Delinquency | .61 | <.001 | .59 | <.001 | ||
| Caregiver Perception of Neighborhood Safety | .08 | .071 | ||||
| Adolescent Perception of Neighborhood Safety | <.01 | .957 | ||||
| Head of Household Marital Status (Married vs Not) | .03 | .694 | ||||
| Head of Household Education | .02 | .692 | ||||
| Poverty (High vs Low Income) | .20 | .048 | ||||
| Wave 3 New Violence Exposure | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||
| β | p | β | p | β | p | |
| African American vs White | .10 | <.001 | .03 | .087 | .02 | .577 |
| Hispanic vs White | .06 | .003 | .01 | .457 | .01 | .679 |
| Age in Years | .01 | .643 | −.04 | .045 | −.05 | .021 |
| Gender (Female vs Male) | −.03 | .143 | −.03 | .137 | −.06 | .014 |
| Wave 2 PTSS | .19 | <.001 | .24 | <.001 | ||
| Wave 2 Delinquency | .19 | <.001 | .16 | .003 | ||
| Wave 2 New Violence Exposure | .25 | <.001 | .19 | <.001 | ||
| Caregiver Perception of Neighborhood Safety | −.08 | .012 | ||||
| Adolescent Perception of Neighborhood Safety | −.04 | .121 | ||||
| Head of Household Marital Status (Married vs Not) | −.24 | .002 | ||||
| Head of Household Education | −.10 | .011 | ||||
| Poverty (High vs Low Income) | −.34 | <.001 | ||||
| Wave 3 PTSS | ||||||
| African American vs White | .01 | .238 | −.04 | .051 | −.07 | .052 |
| Hispanic vs White | .03 | .601 | −.01 | .558 | −.02 | .343 |
| Age in Years | .07 | .016 | .01 | .749 | −.02 | .624 |
| Gender (Female vs Male) | .12 | <.001 | .02 | .247 | −.02 | .321 |
| Wave 2 New Violence Exposure | −.08 | <.001 | −.18 | .048 | ||
| Wave 3 New Violence Exposure | .14 | <.001 | .08 | <.001 | ||
| Wave 2 PTSS | .62 | <.001 | .69 | <.001 | ||
| Caregiver Perception of Neighborhood Safety | −.09 | .001 | ||||
| Adolescent Perception of Neighborhood Safety | −.10 | .005 | ||||
| Head of Household Marital Status (Married vs Not) | −.40 | .001 | ||||
| Head of Household Education | −.21 | .006 | ||||
| Poverty (High vs Low Income) | −.57 | <.001 | ||||
| Wave 3 Delinquency | ||||||
| African American vs White | .13 | <.001 | .06 | .124 | .03 | .441 |
| Hispanic vs White | .04 | .321 | −.01 | .855 | −.02 | .666 |
| Age in Years | .08 | .040 | .04 | .338 | .03 | .507 |
| Gender (Female vs Male) | −.13 | <.001 | −.05 | .136 | −.08 | .036 |
| Wave 2 New Violence Exposure | −.01 | .873 | −.04 | .413 | ||
| Wave 3 New Violence Exposure | .11 | .003 | .07 | .058 | ||
| Wave 2 Delinquency | .52 | <.001 | .52 | <.001 | ||
| Caregiver Perception of Neighborhood Safety | −.11 | .026 | ||||
| Adolescent Perception of Neighborhood Safety | −.04 | .304 | ||||
| Head of Household Marital Status (Married vs Not) | −.32 | <.001 | ||||
| Head of Household Education | −.22 | <.001 | ||||
| Poverty (High vs Low Income) | −.49 | <.001 | ||||
Note: PTSS-Posttraumatic stress symptoms. Estimates were derived from a cross-lagged and auto-regressive path model that is depicted in Figure 1. Model 1 examined racial/ethnic differences in violence exposure and symptoms while controlling for only age and gender. Model 2 examined violence exposure and symptom cascades as potential mediators of racial/ethnic differences. Model 3 added familial and contextual variables to Model 2 in order to examine the degree to which these variables explain disparities in the initiation of violence exposure and symptom cascades.