Table 1. Summary of the materials analysed in this study (archaeological ornaments and reference shells) and information on their context, chronology and taxonomic determination.
| Sample type | Site | Cultural group | Time span | Taxonomic determination before this study |
Other molluscan fauna present at the site |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Double-buttons | Havnø | Ertebølle | 4200–4000 cal BCE (radiocarbon dating of the Late Mesolithic horizon; Andersen, 2000; Andersen, 2008) | Unknown, presumed marine shell | Abundant edible marine shells: Ostrea edulis, Littorina sp., Mytilus edulis, Cerastoderma edule
(Andersen, 2000; Andersen, 2008) |
| Hornstaad-Hörnle IA | Hornstaad group (early phase of the regional Late Neolithic) | 3917–3902 BCE (dendrochronology; Billamboz, 2006) | Debated: marine (Ostrea edulis) vs freshwater (Margaritifera margaritifera; Heumüller, 2010; Borrello and Girod, 2008) | Mediterranean marine shells (exotic, non edible): Columbella
rustica (Borrello and Girod, 2008), Callista chione, Astarte borealis, Dentalium vulgare (Heumüller, 2010) |
|
| Peştera Ungurească | Toarte Pastilate and transition to Coţofeni |
4260–3820 cal BCE (range of radiocarbon dates, at 1σ, of layers 2B, 2A3 and 2A, Toarte Pastilate)(Biagi and Voytek, 2006) |
Unio cf. crassus (Girod, 2010a, Figure 6B) | Abundant terrestrial taxa (naturally occurring). Occasional presence of freshwater species (Anisus spirorbis, Pisidium milium, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Lymnaea truncatula, Planorbis cf. carinatus; Girod, 2010a) |
|
| Reference shell | Limfjord (Northern Jutland) | Modern | Ostrea edulis | ||
| Limfjord (Northern Jutland) | Modern | Modiolus modiolus | |||
| Limfjord (Northern Jutland) | Modern | Margaritifera margaritifera (determined by F.M.) | |||
| France (Izeure) | Modern | Unio pictorum | |||
| Peştera Ungurească | Toarte Pastilate and transition to Coţofeni |
4260–3820 cal BCE (range of radiocarbon dates, at 1σ, of layers 2B, 2A3 and 2A, Toarte Pastilate) (Biagi and Voytek, 2006) |
Unio cf. crassus (Girod, 2010a) | Abundant terrestrial taxa (environmental signal). Occasional occurrence of freshwater species (Anisus spirorbis, Pisidium milium, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Lymnaea truncatula, Planorbis cf. carinatus). Not suitable as raw material for the double-buttons (Girod, 2010a) |
|
| Isorella | Vhò | 5226–5023 cal BCE at 2σ (Starnini et al., 2018) | Pseudunio auricularius (Biddittu and Girod, 2003; Girod, 2010b) | Marine taxa (typically used as ornaments): C. rustica, Spondylus (fragment of a bracelet; Girod, 2010b) |