TABLE 1.
Cohort characteristics of the study population1
| 6 wk | Early infancy2 | 2 y | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristics | PL (n = 141) | VA (n = 139) | PL (n = 134) | VA (n = 128) | PL (n = 128) | VA (n = 121) |
| Sex, (male), % | 48.2 | 49.6 | 48.5 | 50.0 | 47.7 | 50.4 |
| Mode of delivery (cesarian), % | 66.7 | 54.7 | 65.7 | 54.7 | 68.8 | 56.2 |
| Place of birth (hospital), % | 96.4 | 96.4 | 96.3 | 96.9 | 96.1 | 97.5 |
| Gestational age, wk | 39.2 ± 1.58 | 39.1 ± 1.67 | 39.2 ± 1.59 | 39.1 ± 1.66 | 39.2 ± 1.58 | 39.1 ± 1.64 |
| Preterm birth (<37 wk), % | 7.19 | 7.19 | 6.82 | 7.81 | 7.14 | 6.67 |
| Birth weight, g | 2754 ± 388 | 2716 ± 363 | 2759 ± 393 | 2712 ± 360 | 2772 ± 401 | 2751 ± 384 |
| Breastfeeding status, % | ||||||
| Exclusive | 69.5 | 70.5 | — | — | 0 | 0 |
| Predominant | 7.80 | 9.35 | — | — | 0 | 0 |
| Other | 22.7 | 20.1 | — | — | 57.9 | 51.7 |
| None | 0 | 0 | — | — | 42.1 | 48.3 |
| Plasma retinol,3 µmol/L | 0.629 ± 0.0859 | 0.634 ± 0.0833 | 0.629 ± 0.0639 | 0.636 ± 0.0592 | 0.879 ± 0.139* | 0.913 ± 0.129 |
| Weight, kg | 4.37 ± 0.566 | 4.28 ± 0.547 | — | — | 10.7 ± 1.79 | 11.0 ± 1.65 |
| Length, cm | 54.3 ± 2.29 | 53.8 ± 2.09 | — | — | 83.7 ± 5.01 | 83.5 ± 6.48 |
| Wasting (WHZ <–2), % | 4.96 | 4.34 | — | — | 13.0 | 7.08 |
| Stunting (HAZ <–2), % | 15.6 | 18.8 | — | — | 35.8 | 32.7 |
| Father's educational status, years of school | 8.44 ± 3.72 | 8.68 ± 4.04 | 8.37 ± 3.75 | 9.26 ± 7.70 | 8.49 ± 3.64 | 9.11 ± 8.36 |
| Mother's educational status, years of school | 8.33 ± 3.25 | 8.62 ± 3.46 | 8.36 ± 3.21 | 8.58 ± 3.39 | 8.35 ± 3.13 | 8.56 ± 3.24 |
| Number of people per household | 4.52 ± 1.88 | 4.50 ± 2.01 | 4.54 ± 1.89 | 4.54 ± 2.07 | 4.58 ± 1.96 | 4.34 ± 1.63 |
| Number of live siblings | 0.688 ± 0.855 | 0.669 ± 0.802 | 0.694 ± 0.860 | 0.680 ± 0.822 | 0.625 ± 0.832 | 0.658 ± 0.804 |
| n = 0, % | 53.2 | 51.1 | 53.0 | 51.6 | 57.0 | 51.7 |
| n ≥ 1, % | 46.8 | 48.9 | 47.0 | 48.4 | 43.0 | 48.3 |
| Any children died before (yes), % | 12.1 | 15.8 | 12.7 | 17.2 | 11.7 | 15.0 |
| Access to drinking water, % | ||||||
| Piped water | 90.0 | 88.5 | 90.3 | 89.8 | 88.7 | 89.8 |
| Public tap | 5.0 | 4.3 | 5.22 | 4.69 | 6.45 | 4.23 |
| Tube well | 5.0 | 7.2 | 4.48 | 5.47 | 4.85 | 5.97 |
| Type of toilet | ||||||
| Sanitary latrine | 97.9 | 95.0 | 97.8 | 96.1 | 98.4 | 96.6 |
| Pit latrine | 1.42 | 4.32 | 1.49 | 3.13 | 1.61 | 3.39 |
| Other | 0.68 | 0.68 | 0.71 | 0.77 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| Floor material, % | ||||||
| Cement or tiles | 95.74 | 94.2 | 95.5 | 95.3 | 96.0 | 94.1 |
| Other | 4.30 | 5.8 | 4.5 | 4.7 | 4.03 | 5.90 |
1Data presented as mean ± SD or frequency as percentage. Difference between treatment groups was determined by Student's t test or chi-squared test. *P < 0.05. VA, neonatal high-dose vitamin A–supplemented group; PL, placebo group.
2Statistics of the 262 infants who have complete set of microbiota data at 6, 11, and 15 wk of age.
3Early-infancy retinol is the average of the 6- and 15-wk plasma retinol levels.