Table 2.

The mode of action and sub-inhibitory effects of peptides described in the review.

Peptide	The cell’s targets	Negative sub-MIC effects∗	Positive sub-MIC effects∗	References
LL-37	Membranes permeabilization; direct DNA binding	Promote mucoidy phenotype in Gr-bacteria; overproduction of virulence factors; promote resistance to antimicrobials	Inhibites biofilm formation P. aeruginosa and S. aureus	Fernández et al., 2010; Dean et al., 2011; de la Fuente-Núñez et al., 2012; Strempel et al., 2013; Limoli et al., 2014
Cecropin A	Membranes permeabilization	Unknown	Unknown	Silvestro et al., 2000; Hong et al., 2003; Rangarajan et al., 2013
Indolicidin	Membranes permeabilization; direct DNA binding	Promote resistance to antimicrobials	Prevent biofilm development of MRSA S. aureus	Fernández et al., 2010, 2012; Mataraci and Dosler, 2012
Fallaxin analog FL9	Membranes permeabilization; direct DNA binding	Increase production of α-haemolysin	Unknown	Gottschalk et al., 2015
C18G	Membranes permeabilization	Increased expression of the virulence factor of S. typhimurium	Unknown	Yu and Guo, 2011
α-defensin HNP-1	Membranes permeabilization; lipid II binding; target the ExPortal of S. pyogenes	Unknown	inhibition of secretion of SpeB cysteine protease and the streptolysin O	Vega and Caparon, 2012
β-defensin hBD-2	Membranes permeabilization	Unknown	Regulatory of gut homeostasis	Marzani et al., 2012; Dicks et al., 2018
Bovicin HC5	Membranes permeabilization	Unknown	Prevents biofilm formation of S. aureus	Mantovani et al., 2002; Pimentel-Filho Nde et al., 2014
Subtilosin	Membranes permeabilization	Unknown	Prevents biofilm formation of Gram-negative bacteria	Algburi et al., 2017
Plantaricin A	Membranes permeabilization at high (in vitro) concentration and pheromone at low (in natural) concentration	Unknown	Involved in the formation of a sustainable animal microbiome	Anderssen et al., 1998; Hauge et al., 1998; Kristiansen et al., 2005; Sturme et al., 2007; Calasso et al., 2013
Nisin	Membranes permeabilization; inhibites peptidoglycan sintesis; pheromone	Unknown	Inhibites bacterial biofilm formation	Mahdavi et al., 2007; Shin et al., 2015
Polymyxin B	Membranes permeabilization	Promote resistance to antimicrobials	Inhibites of secretion of SpeB cysteine protease and the streptolysin O	Fernández et al., 2012; Vega and Caparon, 2012
Colistin	Membranes permeabilization	Resistance; promote biofilm formation; pyocyanin production		Cummins et al., 2009; Fernández et al., 2012
Hemoglobin-derived peptides (Hbg-1, 2 and other)	Membranes permeabilization	Promote S. aureus surface colonization	Inhibites production of TSS toxin-1, enterotoxin C, α, δ hemolysin of S. aureus	Schlievert et al., 2007; Pynnonen et al., 2011
Dipeptides cyclo(L-Phe-L-Pro)	Unknown	Unknown	Inhibites production of TSS toxin-1	Li et al., 2011

^∗Is meant the reactions of the bacterial population, which has a final positive or negative effect on macroorganism (animal, plant, etc.).