Table 1.

Description of theory, fact, and value-based judgments inherent in most conceptualisations of empowerment

Judgment	Description	Why the distinction matters	What it means for measurement
Individual versus collective empowerment	Is the agent of empowerment an individual or is it a group?	Individual empowerment may be either aligned with, independent of, or opposed to collective empowerment, depending on our conceptualisation of the two notions	When collective empowerment is based on limits to individual freedom, we cannot easily combine individual and collective measures into one score
Internal versus external barriers to empowerment	Are the barriers to empowerment internal to the agent or external to the agent?	Internal notions of freedom may be appropriated for freedom-limiting purposes Internal notions of freedom reflect ability to cope with oppression rather than lack of oppression itself External notions of freedom ignore false consciousness External notions of freedom ignore second-order desires External notions of freedom reflect masculinist bias	When external freedom is endorsed, precisely because it is not internal freedom (e.g. internal freedom measures coping ability rather than empowerment), then we cannot easily interpret an average score of both internal and external measures
Forward-versus backward-looking viewpoint	Should empowerment be assessed based on the motivation leading up to an outcome or on opportunities for future outcomes?	Too much choice can demotivate decision-making Forward-looking freedoms do not entail exercise of freedom Backward-looking freedoms do not entail availability of opportunity	When a loss of opportunity leads to greater life satisfaction, the two types of freedom are mutually opposed; in such a case, it is difficult to interpret an average both types of freedom
Direct versus indirect freedom	Do agents’ need to be directly involved in realising their own outcomes for it to constitute empowerment or can others make decisions on agents’ behalf?	Indirect freedom may encourage dependency on others Direct freedom expects too much from self-reliance Direct freedom reflects masculinist bias Indirect freedom may marginalise women’s voices	Since most acts of social support necessarily simultaneously entail a degree of dependency, the values of direct and indirect freedom are usually opposed; in such a case, it is difficult to interpret an average of both types of freedom
Subjective versus objective interests	Should the goal of empowerment be determined by agents themselves or by independent experts?	Notions of objective interest may be paternalistic and discredit agent’s own ability form a conception of the good Notions of subjective interest may ignore false consciousness	When an agent’s subjective interests are the opposite of their objective interest, then we cannot easily interpret an average of their ability to achieve both types of interest