Table 2.

Table 2. Modulation of autophagy by antipsychotics in non-neuronal cells.

"Flux" refers to autophagic flux; ↑ denotes increase/activation; ↓ denotes decrease/inhibition; n.a. - not assessed; ATZ - α1-antitrypsin Z; ER - endoplasmic reticulum; PKC - protein kinase C.

Agent	Cells/Tissues	LC3-II	Flux	Mechanisms	Effects	Ref.
Thioridazine	GBM8401, U87MG glioma cells	↑	↑	AMPK↑	Apoptotic death; Tumor growth in vivo↓	53
Trifluoperazine	MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells	↑	n.a.	n.a.	Migration↓; Invasiveness↓	54
Trifluoperazine	Ca922, SCC2095, primary oral cancer cells	↑	n.a.	Akt/mTORC1↓	Apoptotic death; Tumor growth in vivo↓	58
Trifluoperazine	HeLa cells	↑	↑	n.a.	Bacterial clearance	61
Trifluoperazine	H4 glioma cells	↑	↑	Ca2+↓, calpain↓, ATG5 cleavage↓	Clearance of mutant; poliglutamine	13,59
Fluspirilene	H4 glioma cells	↑	↑	Ca2+↓, calpain↓, ATG5 cleavage↓	Clearance of mutant; poliglutamine	13,59
Pimozide	H4 glioma cells	↑	↑	Ca2+↓, calpain↓, ATG5 cleavage↓	Clearance of mutant; poliglutamine	13,59
Penfluridol	Panc-1, AsPC-1, BxPC-3; pancreatic cancer cells	↑	↑	n.a.	Apoptotic death; Tumor growth in vivo↓	55
Chlorpromazine	U87MG glioma cells	↑	↑	Akt/mTORC1↓	Apoptotic death; Tumor growth in vivo↓	56
Olanzapine	LN229, T98 glioma cells	↑	↑	n.a.	Apoptotic death; Tumor growth in vivo↓	57
Clozapine	A549, H1299 lung cancer cells	↑	↑	n.a.	Cell cycle arrest; Cell death	60
Clozapine	Mouse skeletal muscle	↓	n.a.	PKCβ↑, LC3 conversion↓	Lipid droplet clearance↓; Weight gain	63
Fluphenazine	Mouse liver	↑	n.a.	n.a.	ATZ clearance; Liver fibrosis↓	62