Fig. 1.

(a) Memory ‘card’ stimuli, face-up, showing to-be-remembered objects. Two of the four cards were randomly chosen on each test trial. One was used as both the Sample and Match cards, and the other as the Non-Match card. (b).

Schematic of test trial events. Anticipatory gaze responses were analyzed during the 2.5 s response phase, where VWM performance was measured as the percentage of trials where the infants’ first anticipatory look was to the Match card. Areas of Interest (AOIs) for the Match, Non-Match, and Sample cards are indicated by red frames (not shown during testing). Pupil diameter was measured throughout the trial, and the task-evoked pupil response (TEPR) during the encoding phase was evaluated as a predictor of task performance.