Table 1.

Characteristics of included studies.

Primary author (year)	Study design and country/setting	Participants	Intervention and dosage	Control and dosage	Outcome measures	Global quality rating
Aruin (2012)46	RCT; USA/NR	• n = 18 (9 exp/9 con) • Age = 35–75 years • Time since stroke = 1.1–14.1 years	Compelled body weight shift (0.6 cm shoe lift in unaffected foot) + CPT All days, 6 weeks	CPT 1 hour, 1×/week	• FMA-LE • BBS • %BW on affected side • 10MWT gait velocity Follow-up = 3 months	Weak
Cordo (2009)39	Pretest–posttest; USA/community	• n = 12a • Age = 38–75 years • Time since stroke = 1.9–15.6 years	Assisted Movement with Enhanced Sensation robotic treatment (cycled at 5°/second through ±17.5°) + electromyography feedback on affected ankle 30 minutes/day, 6 months	NA	• Days to 90% recovery of JPS and ankle strength • %BW on affected side • Gait velocity, cadence, and stride length Follow-up = 6 months	Weak
Da Silva Ribeiro (2015)51	RCT; Brazil/NR	• n = 30 (15 exp/15 con) • Age = 18–60 years • Time since stroke = mean 42.1 months (exp), 60.4 months (con)	Nintendo Wii virtual rehab 60 minutes, 2×/week, 2 months	CPT 60 minutes, 2×/week, 2 months	• FMA-LE (sensation, balance, leg motor, and leg coordination subscores) No follow-up	Moderate
Han (2013)40	CCT; Korea/inpatient rehab	• n = 62 (31 exp/31 con) • Mean age = 56.1 years (exp), 56.6 years (con) • Time since stroke = mean 15.2 months (exp), 16.1 months (con)	Unstable surface (proprioceptive sense) exercise underwater 40 minutes, 3×/week, 6 weeks	Unstable surface exercise on land 40 minutes, 3×/week, 6 weeks	• JPS error (Biodex electrogoniometer) • BBS • Postural sway area EO and EC No follow-up	Weak
Hillier (2006)23	Single-case, repeated measures; Australia/NR	• n = 3 • Age = 63–73 years • Time since stroke = >2 years	Education, detection, localisation, discrimination, recognition, and proprioception training on affected foot 45 minutes/session 3×/week, 2 weeks	NA	• SWM light touch • DPT • Postural sway path length No follow-up	Weak
Huzmeli (2017)41	CCT; Turkey/inpatient rehab	• n = 26 (13 exp/13 con) • Age = 45–65 years • Time since stroke = mean 40.2 months (exp), 20.1 months (con)	Proprioception, localisation, vibration, pressure discrimination, and TENS (parameters not described) on affected posterior thigh + neurodevelopmental rehab 45 minutes/session 10 sessions, 2 weeks	Neurodevelopmental rehab 45 minutes/session 10 sessions, 2 weeks	• SWM light touch • 2-point discrimination • DPT • Heat/cold senses • BBS • FRT • Barthel Index Follow-up = 2 weeks	Weak
Kwon (2013)52	RCT; Korea/NR	• n = 45 • (RPM 15/RAM 15/Con 15) •Mean age = 58.7 years (RPM), 61.2 years (RAM), 63.3 years (con) • Time since stroke = mean 10.1 months (RPM), 10.6 months (RAM), 10.9 months (con)	RPM or RAM exercises on affected leg; angle speed 120°/second; 10°–100° 15 minutes in total, 3 sets of 60 repetitions	No exercise	• Knee JPS error – passive angle repositioning Knee JPS error – active angle repositioning (Biodex electrogoniometer) No follow-up	Weak
Lee (2015)42	RCT; Korea/inpatient rehab	• n = 36 (18 exp/18 con) • Age = <65 years (n = 28), ≥65 years (n = 8) • Time since stroke = mean 11.5 months (exp), 11.6 months (con)	Motor imagery (5 minutes) + proprioceptive training (25 minutes) 30 minutes/session 5×/week, 8 weeks	Proprioceptive training (30 minutes) 30 minutes/session 5×/week, 8 weeks	• JPS error (Dualer IQ inclinometer) • BBS • Affected/unaffected WB ratio • TUG No follow-up	Weak
Lynch (2007)22	RCT; Australia/inpatient rehab	• n = 21 (10 exp/11 con) • Age = 21–82 years • Time since stroke = 13–122 days	Education, detection, localisation, discrimination, and proprioception on affected big toe and ankle 30 minutes/session 10 sessions, 2 weeks	Relaxation + standing with EC 30 minutes/session 10 sessions, 2 weeks	• SWM light touch • DPT • BBS • 10MWT gait velocity • ILAS Follow-up = 2 weeks	Moderate
Mazuchi (2018)47	RCT; Brazil/NR	• n = 12 • Age = 40–65 years • Time since stroke = mean 67.6 months (exp), 56.6 months (con)	Aerobic deep water walking training (stationary gait) 30 minutes/session 1st week (50% heart rate), 40 minutes/session 2nd-9th week (60% heart rate); 5-minute warm-up and 5-minute cool-down; 3×/week; 9 weeks	Aerobic treadmill walking training 30 minutes/session 1st week (50% heart rate), 40 minutes/session 2nd-9th week (60% heart rate); 5-minute warm-up and 5-minute cool-down; 3×/week; 9 weeks	• Knee JPS absolute error (Biodex isokinetic dynamometer) No follow-up	Moderate
Mohapatra (2012)38	RCT; USA/inpatient rehab	n = 11 (5 exp/6 con) Mean age = 49.2 years Time since stroke = 8–13 days (exp), 7–45 days (con)	Compelled body weight shift (0.6 cm shoe lift in unaffected foot) + CPT 90 minutes/session weekdays, 30 minutes/session Saturdays, 6×/week, 2 weeks	CPT 90 minutes/session weekdays, 30 minutes/session Saturdays, 6×/week, 2 weeks	• FMA-LE • BBS • %BW on affected side • Gait velocity No follow-up	Moderate
Moon (2015)43	CCT; Korea/inpatient rehab	n = 30 (15 exp/15 con) Mean age = 55.7 (exp), 50.1 (con) Time since stroke = mean 33.3 months (exp), 36.0 months (con)	Treadmill training with EC 3 × 10 minutes/session 3×/week, 4 weeks	Treadmill training with EO 3 × 10 minutes/session 3×/week, 4 weeks	• Knee JPS error (Biodex isokinetic dynamometer) No follow-up	Weak
Morioka (2003)44	RCT; Japan/inpatient rehab	n = 26 (12 exp/14 con) Age = 51–79 years Time since stroke = 31–111 days	Hardness discrimination perceptual learning exercises (3 different levels of rubber sponge hardness) + CPT 10 trials/session 10 sessions, 2 weeks	CPT NR	• Hardness discrimination • 2-point discrimination • Postural sway locus length EO and EC No follow-up	Moderate
Peurala (2002)45	CCTb; Finland/inpatient rehab	n = 59c (foot 19 exp/0 con; hand 32 exp/8 con) Mean age = 54.4 years Time since stroke = 7 months–14 years	TENS (monophasic constant, frequency 50 Hz) using sock electrode on affected foot + CPT 20 minutes/session 2×/day, 3 weeks	NA (no subjects for foot con)	• Limb skin sensitivity (VAS) • SEP to posterior tibial nerve • 10MWT gait velocity • MMAS No follow-up	Weak
Tyson (2013)49	Paired-sample randomised cross-over trial; UK/research facility	n = 29 Age = 28–82 years Time since stroke = NR	TENS (biphasic symmetrical, phase duration 50 μs, frequency 70–130 Hz, 5 seconds/cycle) using sock electrode on affected foot; Not specifiedd	Placebo TENS Not specifiedd	• Ankle proprioception detection threshold (Biodex isokinetic dynamometer) • FRT • 10MWT gait velocity • Ankle strength No follow-up	Moderate
Zankel (1969)48	CCT; Columbia/NR	n = 40e (10 exp/10 con) Age = 39–79 years Time since stroke = NR	Vibration (120 cycles/second) on affected sole 30 minutes, 10 stimuli/minute, 1 month	No vibration NA	• SWM light touch • FMA-LE • BBS • 10MWT gait velocity No follow-up	Weak

RCT: randomized controlled trial; CCT: controlled clinical trial; NR: not reported; exp: rehab: rehabilitation; experimental group; con: control group; RPM: repeated passive movement; RAM: repeated active movement; CPT: conventional physiotherapy treatment; TENS: transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation; NA: not applicable; EC: eyes closed; EO: eyes open; FMA-LE: Fugl-Meyer Assessment for lower extremity; BBS: Berg Balance Scale; %BW: percentage of body weight; 10MWT: 10-metre walk test; JPS: joint position sense; SWM: Semmes–Weinstein monofilaments; DPT: distal proprioception test; FRT: Functional Reach Test; TUG: Timed Up and Go Test; ILAS: Iowa Level of Assistance Scale; VAS: visual analogue scale; SEP: somatosensory evoked potentials; MMAS: Modified Motor Assessment Scale.

^aOnly outcomes of subjects receiving lower limb treatment were extracted.

^bNote that there was no control group for the foot.

^cOnly data of the foot were analysed in this review.

^dUntil subjects felt comfortable with the sensation and outcome measures were obtained while stimulated.

^eCharacteristics of 40 recruited subjects were reported in the article, although only 20 subjects were selected for the study.