Table 2.

Comparisons of in vitro models

	Neonatal cardiomyocytes	Adult cardiomoycytes	Cardiac cell lines	ESC/iPSCs
Pros	Easy primary isolation Able to culture for a long period Well-established checmical drugs to induce pathologic conditions High transfection efficiency	High similarity to human cells in the morphology and behavior Able to obtain cells from diseased heart Able to assess contractility and Ca2+ transient	Easy to culture Able to culture for a long period Able to passage and recover from a frozen stock High transfection efficiency Minimize animal sacrifices	Derived from human source Able to assess Ca2+ transient Able to study human genetic disorder
Cons	Immaturity Non-uniform contraction	Limited gene manupulation methods Technically difficult to isolate cells	Lack of cardiac phenotype Unable to assess contractility	Technically difficult High cost Immaturity Batch-to-batch variation
Application	Hypertrophy assessment High-throughput drug screen	Contractility measurement Ca2+ imaging Patch-clamp Sublocalization study by immunostaining	High-throughput drug screen Toxicology	High-throughput drug screen Toxicology Ca2+ imaging Precision medicine