Table 1.
Details of included studies.
| Study | Sample size and parents' gender | Youth age (range) in years and gender | Parent clinical status∧ | Youth clinical status and primary diagnosis | Study design and conditions | Intervention characteristics | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intervention program | Intervention group/s | Sessions | ||||||
| Bazzano et al. (2015) | N = 66 parents/caregivers (77% mothers/female) | NR | Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (59%), ID (21%), cerebral palsy (5%), Down syndrome (3%), other diagnoses (11%) | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MBSR adapted for parents of children with disabilities | Parent/caregiver group | 8 weeks × 2 h + 4 h silent retreat; total 20 h |
| Bögels et al. (2008) | N = 14 parents (57% mothers) and 14 adolescents | M = 14.4 (11–17) 57% boys | Clinical: DD (21%), PTSD (21%), ADHD (14%), PDD (14%), Asperger's (7%) | Clinical: ODD (43%), PDD (21%), ADHD (14%), CD (14%) ASD (7%) | WLC trial: 1. MP |
MBCT adapted for parents | Parent group and separate adolescent mindfulness group | 8 weeks × 1.5 h; total 12 h (for both parent and adolescent groups) |
| Bögels et al. (2014) | N = 86 parents (89% mothers) |
M = 10.7 (2–21) 60% boys |
Clinical: Parent-child relational problem (58%), DD (16%), adjustment disorder (8%), BD (2%), ADHD (1%), BPD (1%) | Clinical: ADHD (47%), ASD (21%), AD (7%), DD (5%), ODD (4%), LD (4%), CD (1%), schizophrenia (1%) | WLC trial: 1. MP |
MP (Bögels and Restifo, 2013) | Parent group | 8 weeks × 3 h; total 24 h |
| Chan and Neece (2018)# | N = 80 parents (96% mothers) |
M = 4.18 (2.5–5) 71% boys |
Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (64%), other developmental delay (36%) | RCT: 1. MBSR 2. Wait list control |
MBSR: MBSR program Control: Nil (offered MBSR program after completion of waitlist period) |
MBSR: Parent group Control: Nil | MBSR: 8 weeks × 2 h + 6 h retreat; total 22 h Control: Nil |
| Chaplin et al. (2018) | N = 100 mothers | M = 14.04 (12–17) 48% boys | Non-clinical: self-reported parenting stress | Non-clinical: inclusion criteria did not require diagnosis or referral, but 53% of families receiving psychotherapy | RCT: 1. MP 2. Parent education control |
MP: Parenting Mindfully (based on MBSR and Duncan et al., 2009)Control: presentation, handouts on adolescent development and parenting, question time | MP: Parent group Control: Parent group | MP: 8 weeks × 2 h; total 16 h Control: 3 meetings × 30 min each |
| Corthorn (2018) | N = 43 mothers | M = 2.9 (intervention group) and M = 3.0 (control group).Overall range = 2–5Gender NR | Non-clinical | Non-clinical | Controlled trial: 1. MP 2. No treatment control |
MP: MBSR adapted for parents Control: Nil |
MP: Parent group Control: Nil | MP: 8 weeks × 2 h; total 16 h Control: Nil |
| De Bruin et al. (2015) | N = 29 parents (62% mothers) and 23 adolescents |
M = 15.8 (11–23) 74% boys |
Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (52%), PDD (48%) | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP (Bögels and Restifo, 2013) | Parent group and separate adolescent mindfulness group | 9 weeks × 1.5 h; total 13 h (for both parent and adolescent groups) |
| Eames et al. (2015) | N = 23 mothers |
M = 3.14 (1–6) 55% boys |
Non-clinical: low socio-economic community | Non-clinical | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
Mindfulness-based well-being for parents (adapted from MBSR) | Parent group | 8 weeks × 2 h; total 16 h |
| Ferraioli and Harris (2013) | N = 15 parents (66% mothers) | NR (all under 18) | Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (66%), PDD (34%) | RCT: 1. MP 2. Skills-based parent training Participants matched on parenting stress scores. |
MP: Mindfulness-based parent training (adapted from mindfulness module, Linehan, 1993)Control: behavioral parent training for parents of children with ASD | MP: Parent group Control: Parent group | MP: 8 weeks × 2 h; total 16 h Control: 8 weeks × 2 h; total 16 h |
| Haydicky et al. (2015) | N = 17 parents (94% mothers) and 18 adolescents | M = 15.5 (13–18) 72% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ADHD | WLC trial: 1. MP |
MP (adapted from Bögels et al., 2008) | Parent group and separate adolescent mindfulness group | 8 weeks × 1.5 h; total 12 h (for both parent and adolescent groups) |
| Jones et al. (2018) | N = 21 parents (86% mothers) | M = 10.53 (4–16)Note: mean VABS functioning ability = 4.9562% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (76%), ID (10%), cerebral palsy (10%), Down's syndrome (5%) | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
Mindfulness-based wellbeing for parents (adapted from MBSR) | Parent group | 8 weeks × 2 h; total 16 h |
| Lewallen and Neece (2015)# | N = 24 mothers |
M = 3.40 (2.5–5) 67% boys |
Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (83%), other developmental delay (17%) | RCT: 1. MBSR 2. Wait list control |
MBSR: MBSR program Control: Nil (offered MBSR after waitlist) |
MBSR: Parent group Control: Nil | MBSR: 8 weeks × 2 h + 6 h retreat; total 22 h Control: Nil |
| Lo et al. (2017a) | N = 180 parents (94% mothers) | NR (pre-school age) 77% boys |
Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (57%), developmental delay (28%), ADHD (7%), other diagnosis (8%) |
RCT: 1. MP 2. No treatment control |
MP: MP adapted from Bögels (2013) and Coatsworth et al. (2014)Control: Nil (mindfulness workshop, after study) | MP: Parent group Control: Nil | MP: 6 weeks × 1.5 h; total 9 h Control: Nil |
| Lo et al. (2017b) | N = 100 parents (96% mothers) | M = 6.25 (5–7)83% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ADHD | RCT: 1. MP 2. Wait list control |
MP: MP adapted from Bögels and Restifo (2014) and Coatsworth et al. (2010)Control: Nil (offered MP after waitlist) |
MP: Parent group and separate child mindfulness group Control: Nil | MP: 6 weeks × 1.5 h; total 9 h (for parent groups). 8 weeks × 1 h (for child groups).Control: Nil |
| Maloney and Altmaier (2007) | N = 12 parents (83% mothers) and 12 children | M = 3.9 (2.75–6)Gender NR | Non-clinical: participants recently divorced or separated | Non-clinical | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP (Placone-Willey, 2002) | Parent group | 12 weeks; session length NR; total 15 h |
| Mann et al. (2016) | N = 38 parents (95% mothers) | Mean NR (2–6)Gender NR | Non-clinical: history of depression (≥ 3 episodes and in full/ partial remission) | Non-clinical | RCT: 1. MP + usual care 2. Usual care control |
MP: MBCT adapted for parents with history of depression Control: usual care |
MP: Parent group Control: Nil | MP: 8 weeks, session length and total hours NRControl: Nil |
| Meppelink et al. (2016) | N = 70 parents (93% mothers) | M = 8.7 (range NR)57% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (29%), parent-child interaction problem (26%), ADHD (24%), AD (3%), ODD (1.5%), adjustment disorder (1.5%), other diagnosis (6%) | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP (Bögels and Restifo, 2014) | Parent group | 8 weeks × 3 h; total 24 h |
| Neece (2014) | N = 46 parents (78% mothers) | M = 3.84 (2.5–5)71% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD | RCT: 1. MBSR 2. Wait list control |
MBSR: MBSRControl: Nil (offered MBSR after waitlist) | MBSR: Parent group Control: Nil | MBSR: 8 weeks × 2 h + 6 h retreat; total 22 h Control: Nil |
| Potharst et al. (2017) | N = 37 mothers |
M = 0.86 (0–1.5) 50% boys |
Clinical: mental health disorder (84%) or referral for difficulties related to mothering |
Non-clinical: sleeping problems (27%), excessive crying (18%) | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP adapted for mothers with a baby (Bögels et al., 2014) | Mother/baby group |
8 weeks × 2 h; total 16 h |
| Potharst et al. (2018)a Non-clinical setting | N = 98 parents (82% mothers) |
M = 8.9 (0–35.3) Gender NR |
Non-clinical, self-reported parenting stress | Non-clinical | WLC trial: 1. MP |
MP shortened for non-clinical context (Bögels and Restifo, 2013) |
Parent group | 8 weeks × 2 h; total 16 hb |
| Potharst et al. (2018) Clinical setting | N = 89 parents (80% mothers) |
M = 11.7 (2.6–25.4) Gender NR |
Non-clinical | Clinical: ADHD (31%), ASD (23%), DICA (10%), AD (5%), PTSD (4%), MD (1%), OCD (1%), ODD (1%), IED (1%), unknown diagnosis (21%) | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP (Bögels and Restifo, 2013) | Parent group | 8 weeks × 3 h + 3 h booster session, 8 weeks post-completion; total 27 h c |
| Racey et al. (2017) | N = 29 parents (97% mothers) and 25 adolescents | M = 16.4 (14–18) 0% boys | Non-clinical: 50% parents had history of depression |
Clinical: partially recovered from depressive episode | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MBCT |
MBCT adapted for parents and youth | Parent group and separate adolescent mindfulness group | 8 weeks (for both parent and adolescent groups); session length and total hours NR |
| Ridderinkhof et al. (2017) | N = 74 parents (58% mothers) and 45 adolescents | M = 13.03 (8–19) 80% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (IQ ≥ 80) | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP adapted for parents of children with ASD from Bögels and Restifo (2014) | Parent group and separate adolescent mindfulness group | 9 weeks × 1.5 h (for both parent and adolescent groups) + 1x joint parent/ adolescent booster session, 9 weeks post-completion; total 15 h |
| Short et al. (2017) | N = 59 mothers | NR (≤3)Gender NR | Clinical: in treatment for opioid and other substance-use disorders | Non-clinical | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP adapted from MBSR for parents with high rates of trauma |
Parent group | 12 weeks × 2 h; total 24 h |
| van de Weijer-Bergsma et al. (2012) | N = 11 parents (55% mothers) and 10 adolescents | M = 13.4 (11–15) 50% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ADHD | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP (Bögels et al., 2008 and van der Oord et al., 2012) | Parent group and separate adolescent mindfulness group | 8 weeks × 1.5 h (for both parent and child groups) + 1x joint parent/ adolescent booster session, 8 weeks post-completion; total ~13 h |
| van der Oord et al. (2012) | N = 22 parents (95% mothers) and 22 children | M = 9.55 (8–12) 73% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ADHD | WLC trial: 1. MP |
MP adapted for parents of children with ADHD from Bögels et al. (2008) and Bögels et al. (2010) | Parent group and separate mindfulness group for children | 8 weeks × 1.5 h; total 12 h (for both parent and child groups) |
| Voos (2017) | N = 21 parents (71% mothers) | M = 9.5 (range NR; < 18) 91% boys |
Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP (Bögels and Restifo, 2013) | Parent group | 8 weeks × 1.5 h; total 12 h |
| Xu (2017)# | N = 32 parents (90% mothers) | M = 4.68 (2.5–5) 71% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ASD (48%), ID or other developmental delay (36%), Down's syndrome (16%) | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MBSR |
MBSR | Parent group | 8 weeks × 2 h + 6 h retreat; total 22 h |
| Zhang et al. (2017) | N = 11 parents (64% mothers) and 11 children | M = 9.5 (8–12) 73% boys | Non-clinical | Clinical: ADHD | Uncontrolled trial: 1. MP |
MP (van der Oord et al., 2012; van de Weijer-Bergsma et al., 2012) | Parent group and separate child mindfulness group | 8 weeks × 1.5 h; total 12 h (for both parent and child groups) |
∧
For both parent and youth clinical status, “Clinical” means that the participating parent or their child were selected for the study based on either a clinical diagnosis, or referral for clinical assistance, for a mental health difficulty. “Non-clinical” means the participating parents, or their child, were not selected for the study based on either a clinical diagnosis or referral for clinical assistance. A non-clinical group of parents or youth may still, therefore, include individuals who meet criteria for a psychiatric or physical health condition; NR, Not reported; MBSR, Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1992); MBCT, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (Segal et al., 2002); MP, mindful parenting; WLC, waitlist controlled; RCT, randomized, controlled trial; ASD, an autism spectrum disorder; ID, an intellectual disability; DD, a depressive disorder; PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder; ADHD, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder; PDD, pervasive developmental disorder; ODD, oppositional defiant disorder; CD, conduct disorder; BD, bipolar disorder; BPD, borderline personality disorder; AD, anxiety disorder; LD, learning disorder; OCD, obsessive compulsive disorder; MD, mood disorder; IED, intermittent explosive disorder; DICA, disorder of infancy, childhood or adolescence not otherwise specified; VABS, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow et al., 1984);
#
Chan and Neece (2018), Lewallen and Neece (2015), and Xu (2017) are included in this table for clarity, however these three studies appear to utilize samples of participants overlapping with Neece (2014);
a
Potharst et al. (2018) included two separate streams of participants. One stream attended the intervention in non-clinical settings, the other attended in clinical settings. Study characteristics are reported separately for each setting, given they were independent from each other;
b
basic non-clinical program was 8 weeks × 2 h. However, there were 4 locations (A, B, C, and D) and some varied the basic program. B ran 2.5 h sessions, D ran 3 h sessions, and B and D offered a follow-up session;
c
basic clinical program was 8 weeks × 3 h + 3 h booster. This was run at 4 locations (E, F, G, and H). Location E adjusted the session length to 2.5 h.