Table 1.

Multi-defense strategies against fungal pathogens in social insects.

Strategy	Effect	Defense Mechanism	Host	Species and Reference
Avoiding infection	Protect insect colonies from becoming infected by preventing the entrance of pathogens into the colonies	Avoid fungus-infected areas	Termites	Macrotermes michaelseni [27]
			Ants	Acromyrmex striatus [30]
		Avoid fungus-infected individuals	Termites	Zootermopsis angusticollis [31]
				Reticulitermes flavipes [12]
			Ants	Formica rufa [32]
		Check before colony entrance	Ants	Atta sexdens [33] Atta laevigata [33]
		Collect environmental compounds for nest materials	Ants	Formica paralugubris [34]
		Use self-produced compounds for nest materials (antifungal secretions)	Termites	Zootermopsis angusticollis [35]
				Nasutitermes corniger [36]
			Ants	Acromyrmex subterraneus [37]
				Polyrhachis dives [37]
			Bees	Apis mellifera [38]
		Use symbiotic microorganism for nest materials	Termites	Coptotermes formosanus [39]
			Ants	Acromyrmex octospinosus [40]
Resisting infection	Eliminate pathogens quickly by clearing infectious sources and decreasing individual susceptibility in combination	Grooming	Termites	Zootermopsis angusticollis [11]
				Coptotermes formosanus [28]
			Ants	Acromyrmex echinatior [29]
				Solenopsis invicta [15]
			Bees	Unkown [41]
		Chemical disinfection (antifungal secretions)	Termites	Reticulitermes flavipes [17]
				Nasutitermes costalis [42]
				Nasutitermes nigriceps [42]
				Reticulitermes speratus [43]
			Ants	Acromyrmex subterraneus [37]
				Polyrhachis dives [37]
				Lasius neglectus [44]
			Bees	Apis mellifera [38]
		Active self-exclusions	Ants	Lasius neglectus [45]
				Lasius niger [8]
				Temnothorax unifasciatus [46]
				Myrmica rubra [47]
			Bees	Apis mellifera [24]
		Aggressive behavior	Termites	Reticulitermes flavipes [12]
			Ants	Lasius neglectus [16]
		Cannibalism/Burial	Termites	Reticulitermes flavipes [12,48]
				Coptotermes formosanus [49,50]
			Ants	Formica rufa [32]
				Temnothorax lichtensteini [51]
		Removal	Ants	Myrmica rubra [52]
				Solenopsis invicta [53]
			Bees	Apis mellifera [54]
		Destructive disinfection	Ants	Lasius neglectus [55]
		‘Graveyards’	Ants	Solenopsis invicta [10]
		Food protection (antifungal secretions)	Bees	Apis mellifera [56,57]
			Ants	Atta colombica [58]
				Acromyrmex species [59]
				Tribe Attini [60]
		‘Garbage dump’	Ants	Atta cephalotes [61]
		Social immunization	Termites	Reticulitermes chinensis [62]
			Ants	Lasius neglectus [14]
				Crematogaster scutellaris [63]
Tolerating infection	Cannot directly eliminate pathogens but play an important role in social immunity	Food/nutrition	Ants	Ectatomma ruidum [64]
				Solenopsis invicta [65]
			Bees	Apis mellifera [66]
		Reproduction	Ants	Cardiocondyla obscurior [67]
		Detoxification/antioxidation	Termites	Reticulitermes chinensis [62]