Table 3.
Low SES (n = 320) | Medium SES (n = 366) | High SES (n = 420) | Total (n = 1106) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age, years | 70.1 ± 6.1 | 68.5 ± 5.7 | 67.4 ± 5.7 | 68.6 ± 5.9*** |
Education years | 3.3 ± 3.4 | 5.6 ± 3.7 | 8.3 ± 4.3 | 6.0 ± 4.4*** |
Gender | ||||
Women | 209 (65.3) | 193 (52.7) | 198 (47.1) | 600 (54.2)*** |
Men | 111 (34.7) | 173 (47.3) | 222 (52.9) | 506 (45.8) |
Ethnicity | ||||
Malay | 96 (30.0) | 129 (35.2) | 200 (47.6) | 425 (38.4)*** |
Chinese | 208 (65.0) | 206 (56.3) | 174 (41.4) | 588 (53.2) |
India & Others | 16 (5.0) | 31 (8.5) | 46 (11.0) | 93 (8.4) |
Marital status | ||||
Single | 11 (3.4) | 9 (2.5) | 6 (1.4) | 26 (2.4)*** |
Married | 204 (63.8) | 264 (72.1) | 333 (79.3) | 801 (72.4) |
Divorced | 105 (32.8) | 93 (25.4) | 81 (19.3) | 279 (25.2) |
Smoking | ||||
Non-smoker | 280 (87.5) | 308 (84.2) | 384 (91.4) | 972 (87.9)** |
Smoker | 40 (12.5) | 58 (15.8) | 36 (8.6) | 134 (12.1) |
Living Status | ||||
With others | 266 (83.1) | 324 (88.5) | 401 (95.5) | 991 (89.6)*** |
Alone | 54 (16.9) | 42 (11.5) | 19 (4.5) | 115 (10.4) |
Medical History | ||||
Diabetes | ||||
No | 239 (74.7) | 250 (68.3) | 310 (73.8) | 799 (72.2) |
Yes | 81 (25.3) | 116 (31.7) | 110 (26.2) | 307 (27.8) |
Hypertension | ||||
No | 155 (48.4) | 171 (46.7) | 211 (50.2) | 537 (48.6) |
Yes | 165 (51.6) | 195 (53.3) | 209 (49.8) | 569 (51.4) |
Vision or hearing | ||||
No | 287 (89.7) | 330 (90.2) | 389 (92.6) | 1006 (91.0) |
Yes | 33 (10.3) | 36 (9.8) | 31 (7.4) | 100 (9.0) |
Urinary incontinence | ||||
No | 298 (93.1) | 342 (93.4) | 386 (91.9) | 1026 (92.8) |
Yes | 22 (6.9) | 24 (6.6) | 34 (8.1) | 80 (7.2) |
Constipation | ||||
No | 308 (96.3) | 348 (95.1) | 404 (96.2) | 1060 (95.8) |
Yes | 12 (3.7) | 18 (4.9) | 16 (3.8) | 46 (4.2) |
Asthma | ||||
No | 292 (91.3) | 350 (95.6) | 400 (95.2) | 1042 (94.2)* |
Yes | 28 (8.8) | 16 (4.4) | 20 (4.8) | 64 (5.8) |
Heart disease | ||||
No | 289 (90.3) | 327 (89.3) | 373 (88.8) | 989 (89.4) |
Yes | 31 (9.7) | 39 (10.7) | 47 (11.2) | 117 (10.6) |
Arthritis | ||||
No | 231 (72.2) | 283 (77.3) | 333 (79.3) | 847 (76.6) |
Yes | 89 (27.8) | 83 (22.7) | 87 (20.7) | 259 (23.4) |
Stroke | ||||
No | 316 (29.0) | 359 (98.1) | 413 (98.3) | 1088 (98.4) |
Yes | 4 (1.3) | 7 (1.9) | 7 (1.7) | 18 (1.6) |
Hypercholesterolemia | ||||
No | 220 (68.8) | 219 (59.8) | 265 (63.1) | 704 (63.7) |
Yes | 100 (31.2) | 147 (40.2) | 155 (36.9) | 402 (36.3) |
Anthropometry | ||||
Body Mass Index, kg/m2 | 24.9 ± 4.3 | 25.0 ± 4.4 | 25.6 ± 4.4 | 25.2 ± 4.4 |
BMI category | ||||
Underweight | 142 (45.7) | 151 (41.8) | 157 (38.0) | 450 (41.5)* |
Normal | 67 (21.5) | 115 (31.9) | 119 (28.8) | 301 (27.7) |
Overweight | 102 (32.8) | 95 (26.3) | 137 (33.2) | 334 (30.8) |
Waist Hip Ratio | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.1 |
Weight, kg | 59.7 ± 11.9 | 62.1 ± 11.7 | 64.7 ± 12.5 | 62.4 ± 12.3*** |
Height, cm | 154.6 ± 8.1 | 157.6 ± 8.1 | 158.8 ± 8.8 | 157.2 ± 8.5*** |
MUAC, cm | 28.1 ± 3.3 | 28.7 ± 3.4 | 29.3 ± 3.6 | 28.7 ± 3.5*** |
Waist Circumference, cm | 88.1 ± 11.1 | 88.4 ± 10.7 | 90.1 ± 11.1 | 89.0 ± 11.0* |
Hip Circumference, cm | 96.6 ± 9.1 | 97.5 ± 9.3 | 99.3 ± 9.0 | 97.9 ± 9.2*** |
Calf Circumference, cm | 33.1 ± 3.6 | 34.0 ± 3.5 | 35.0 ± 3.8 | 34.1 ± 3.8*** |
Cognitive | ||||
Digit span | 7.5 ± 2.6 | 8.0 ± 2.6 | 8.4 ± 2.5 | 8.0 ± 2.6*** |
Best learning RAVLT | 36.3 ± 10.5 | 38.1 ± 10.6 | 42.4 ± 10.8 | 39.2 ± 10.9*** |
Digit symbol | 4.5 ± 2.2 | 5.3 ± 2.6 | 7.0 ± 3.0 | 5.7 ± 2.8*** |
MMSE | 22.1 ± 5.3 | 23.6 ± 4.3 | 25.3 ± 3.7 | 23.8 ± 4.6*** |
Immediate visual memory | 39.7 ± 30.7 | 46.5 ± 33.9 | 60.6 ± 31.5 | 49.9 ± 33.2*** |
Delayed visual memory | 31.5 ± 33.0 | 40.2 ± 35.1 | 55.6 ± 36.3 | 43.6 ± 36.4*** |
Dietary Intake | ||||
Protein, per 1000 kcal/day | 43.8 ± 8.7 | 42.3 ± 8.2 | 41.4 ± 8.2 | 42.4 ± 8.4** |
Carbohydrate,per 1000 kcal/day | 132.7 ± 21.2 | 136.7 ± 19.2 | 135.7 ± 20.4 | 135.2 ± 20.3 |
Fat, per 1000 kcal/day | 32.7 ± 8.4 | 31.6 ± 7.7 | 32.2 ± 7.4 | 32.2 ± 7.8 |
SFA, per 1000 kcal/day | 5.1 ± 3.3 | 5.1 ± 3.1 | 5.3 ± 3.1 | 5.1 ± 3.2 |
Fibre, per 1000 kcal/day | 2.5 ± 1.5 | 2.7 ± 1.8 | 3.0 ± 1.9 | 2.8 ± 1.8 |
Sugar, per 1000 kcal/day | 11.3 ± 8.8 | 13.5 ± 9.9 | 16.3 ± 11.4 | 14.0 ± 10.4 |
Vitamin C, per 1000 kcal/day | 76.2 ± 47.6 | 82.2 ± 59.6 | 76.2 ± 50.6 | 78.2 ± 53.0 |
Vitamin E, per 1000 kcal/day | 6.1 ± 26.9 | 7.4 ± 32.6 | 3.3 ± 3.5 | 5.5 ± 23.8 |
Folate, per 1000 kcal/day | 66.1 ± 44.6 | 72.1 ± 59.7 | 72.9 ± 44.1 | 70.7 ± 50.0 |
Sodium, per 100 kcal/day | 941.2 ± 711.7 | 863.5 ± 523 | 856.9 ± 461.3 | 883.5 ± 566.8 |
Potassium, per 1000 kcal/day | 915.6 ± 308.3 | 926.8 ± 317.3 | 944.6 ± 303.8 | 930.3 ± 309.6 |
Calcium, per 1000 kcal/day | 315.4 ± 137.8 | 333.9 ± 182.5 | 333.2 + 159.2 | 328.3 ± 161.7 |
Calorie restriction | ||||
No | 238 (76.5) | 242 (68.0) | 239 (58.4) | 719 (66.8)*** |
Yes | 73 (23.5) | 114 (32.0) | 170 (41.6) | 357 (33.2) |
Fresh fruits intake, (days/week) | 3.5 ± 2.5 | 4.1 ± 2.5 | 4.8 ± 2.4 | 4.2 ± 2.5*** |
Intake of salad or `ulam` (days/week) | 6.0 ± 2.0 | 5.9 ± 2.1 | 6.2 ± 1.9 | 6.0 ± 2.0 |
Psychosocial | ||||
Disability | 5.6 ± 3.1 | 5.4 ± 2.9 | 5.2 ± 3.1 | 5.4 ± 3.0*** |
Depression | 3.2 ± 2.5 | 2.5 ± 2.3 | 2.3 ± 2.1 | 2.6 ± 2.3 |
Loneliness | 3.3 ± 1.1 | 3.2 ± 0.8 | 3.3 ± 1.0 | 3.3 ± 1.0 |
Physical Fitness | ||||
2 min step test, number | 58.4 ± 25.6 | 62.0 ± 26.8 | 67.3 ± 25.9 | 63.0 ± 26.3*** |
Grip strength, kg | 22.0 ± 7.5 | 23.6 ± 7.6 | 25.0 ± 8.0 | 23.7 ± 7.8*** |
Chair stand test, number | 10.1 ± 3.1 | 10.5 ± 11.2 | 11.2 ± 3.1 | 10.6 ± 3.1*** |
TUG, seconds | 11.0 ± 2.9 | 10.2 ± 2.8 | 9.3 ± 2.5 | 10.0 ± 2.8*** |
Chair sit and reach, cm | 4.9 ± 12.8 | 3.6 ± 11.6 | 3.4 ± 11.2 | 3.9 ± 11.8 |
Back scratch test, cm | 15.7 ± 13.1 | 14.5 ± 12.3 | 12.7 ± 13.4 | 14.2 ± 13.0** |
Abbreviation: TUG Timed up and go test, MUAC Mid upper arm circumference, MMSE Mini Mental State Examination, RAVLT Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01;***p < 0.001