Fig. 3.

Caste bias is linked to sex bias. Abdominal caste bias (queen vs. worker log₂ fold change) is correlated to abdominal sex bias (queen vs male log₂ fold change) in a) M. pharaonis (Spearman correlation; rho = 0.715, P < 0.001) and b) A. mellifera (Spearman correlation; rho = 0.774, P < 0.001) and abdominal sex bias is correlated between the two species (Spearman correlation; rho = 0.280, P < 0.001) (c). Red indicates shared queen-biased abdominal DEGs, while blue indicates shared worker-biased abdominal DEGs. Gray indicates genes that did not exhibit shared expression patterns or were not differentially expressed. Lines in a–c indicate the trendline of a linear model. d Shared queen-biased abdominal DEGs tend to be female biased in D. melanogaster, while shared worker-biased abdominal DEGs tend to be male biased in D. melanogaster (likely reflecting downregulation in females). Middle line represents median values, outer edges of boxplot represent upper and lower quartiles, and whiskers represent a deviation of 1.5*(interquartile range) from the upper and lower quartiles. Source data are provided as a Source Data file