Table 1.
Study characteristics.
| First Author | Sample | Study Design | Intervention | Measures of Exercise Intensity | Outcome Measures | Results | Risk of Bias |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anderson-Hanley et al. (2012) [81] | Pre EG: n = 38, Age = 75.7 (9.9), F = 87% CG: n = 41, Age = 81.6 (6.2), F = 71% Post (12 weeks) EG: n = 30 CG: n = 33 R = 58–99 years |
USA Two Groups RCT Supervised |
12 weeks, 5 × up to 45 min per week recommended, minimum of 25 rides for “completers” EG: stationary cycling with 3D virtual bike tour CG: stationary cycling |
Controlled with HRR (60%) | EF (n = 3) PS (n =1) VF (n = 2) STM (n = 5) VSS (n = 2) BDNF (ELISA) |
EG ↑in EF (2/3, d = 0.5) CG ↓ in EF (1/3) EG > CG in *EF (np2 = 0.21) EG > CG in BDNF Adherence: EG (79%), CG (80%) |
High |
| Bacha et al. (2018) [82] | Pre EG: n = 25 CG: n = 25 Post (7 weeks) EG: n = 23, Age = 71.0, F = 65% CG: n = 23, Age = 66.5, F = 83% Retention (4 weeks after post-test) |
Brazil Two Groups RCT Supervised |
7 weeks, 2 × 60 min per week EG: Xbox Kinect Adventure Games CG: Conventional Physiotherapy |
n.a. | MoCA | EG ↑ in MoCA CG ↑ in MoCA Adherence: EG (92%), CG (92%) |
Low |
| Barcelos et al. (2015) [83] | Pre EGI: n = 23 EGII: n = 25 Post (12 weeks) EGI: n = 10, Age = 84.8 (11.3), F = 25% EGII: n = 10, Age = 85.3 (6.9), F = 80% |
USA and Ireland Two Groups RCT Pilot Unsupervised |
12 weeks, 2 × 20 min per week (minimum threshold, recommended increase 3–5 × up to 45 min per week) EGI: stationary Cybercycling plus video game EGII: stationary Cybercycling plus virtual tour |
Controlled with HR | EF (n = 3) MoCA |
Results on healthy subsamples EGI > EGII (1/3, np2 = 0.69) (Full) Adherence: EG (40%), EGII (43%) |
High |
| Chuang et al. (2015). [91] | Pre n = 32, F = 100% Post (12 weeks) EG: n = 7, Age = 69.4 (3.8) CGI: n = 11, Age = 67.0 (1.7) CGII: n = 8, Age = 68.3 (4) |
Taiwan Three Groups UCT Supervised |
12 weeks, 3 × 30 min per week EG: Dance Dance Revolution CGI: brisk walking CGII: passive |
Controlled with HRmax (40–60%), RPE | EF (n = 1) MMSE EEG: ERPs during Flanker task |
EG/CGI ↑ in EF (d = 1.18 (EG) and 0.37 (CGI)) CGII ↓ in EF (d = 0.72) N2 latency: EG and CGI < CGII (d = 2.02 (EG), d = 2.51 (CGI)) P3 latency: EG and CGI < CG II (d = 1.03 (EG), d = 1.21 (CGI)) Adherence: overall (81%) |
High |
| Eggenberger et al. (2015) [84] | Pre EG: n = 30 CGI: n = 29 CGII: n = 30 Between (3 Month) EG: n = 25 CGI: n = 24 CGII: n = 26 Post (6 Month) EG: n = 24, Age = 77.3 (6.3), F = 58% CGI: n = 22, Age = 78.5 (5.1), F = 72% CGII: n = 25, Age = 80.8 (4.7), F = 64% Retention (12 month after post-test) |
Switzerland Three Groups RCT Supervised (except 4 weeks) |
26 weeks, 2 × 60 min per week in group settings, 20 min group specific training (EG, CGI, CGII) + 40 min balance and strength training EG: Virtual Reality Dance Video Game (Platform) CGI: treadmill + stimulus verbal memory training CGII: treadmill + strength and balance exercises for each group |
RPE (monitored only for CGs) | EF (n = 2) PS (n = 4) STM (n = 1) LTM (n = 2) |
EG/CGI/CGII ↑ in *EF EG/CGI/CGII ↑ in *LTM EG/CGI/CGII ↑in *PS Adherence: 3 m 6 m 18 m EG (83%, 80%, 50%), CGI (83%, 75%, 58%), CGII (87%, 83%, 50%) |
Moderate |
| Eggenberger et al. (2016) [85] | Pre EG: n = 22 CG: n = 20 Post (8 weeks) EG: n = 19, Age = 72.8 (5.9), F = 63% CG: n = 14, Age = 77.8 (7.4), F = 64% |
Switzerland Two Groups RCT Supervised |
8 weeks, 3 × 30 min per week EG: Virtual Reality Dance Video Game (Platform) CG: balance and stretching |
RPE (monitored) | EF (n = 3) PS (n = 1) MoCA fNIRS: HbO2 level during preferred and fast treadmill walking (PFC) |
EG > CG in EF (1/3) EG/CG ↓ PFC activity (first 7 s of preferred walking, r = 0.32/0.36, trend fast walking, r = 0.25) EG < CG PFC activity (last 7 s of fast walking r = 0.32) EG/CG: lPFC > rPFC activity after training, r = 0.26–0.32 EG > CG: lPFC activity (r = 0.23/0.27) Adherence: EG (86%), CG (64%) |
Moderate |
| Guimaraes et al., (2018) [86] | Pre n = 36, F = 61% Post (12 weeks) EG: n = 13, Age = 60.0 (4.0), F = 77% CG: n = 14, Age = 60.7 (3.6), F = 43% |
Brazil Two Groups RCT Supervised |
12 weeks, 3 × 60 min per week (+ 3 previous sessions) EG: Microsoft Kinect Sport Games CG: Treadmill and cycle ergometers Both: 5–10 min warm up and 5–10 min stretching |
HR (EG monitored; CG controlled: 40–59% HRR) | EF (n = 2) PS (n = 2) STM (n = 2) MMSE |
EG ↑ in EF (1/2) EG ↑ in STM (1/2) CG ↑ in EF (1/2) CG ↑ in PS (1/2) CG ↑ in *STM CG ↑ in MMSE Adherence: EG: (91%), CG (87%) |
low |
| Kayama et al. (2014) [92] | Pre Age ≥ 65EG: n = 30 CG: n = 18 Post (12 weeks) EG: n = 26 CG: n = 15 |
Japan Two Groups UCT Supervised |
12 weeks, 1 × 80 min per week EG: 75 min traditional training (cf. CG) + 5 min Dual Task Tai Chi (Kinect) CG: 80 min aerobic, strength, balance, and flexibility training |
n.a. | EF (n = 2) PS (n = 1) VF (n = 1) |
EG > CG in EF (1/2) Adherence: EG (87%), CG (83%) |
Unclear |
| Maillot et al. (2012) [79] | Pre F = 84% EG: n = 16 CG: n = 16 Post (12 weeks) EG: n = 15, Age = 73.5 (3.0) CG: n = 15, Age = 73.5 (4.1) |
France Two Groups RCT Supervised |
12 weeks, 2 × 60 min per week EG: Nintendo Wii CG: No-training no-contact |
HR (monitored on 2nd, 12th, and 20th session) | EF (n = 5) PS (n = 4) VSS (n = 4) CP (n = 1) |
EG > CG in *EF (np2 = 0.81) EG > CG in *PS (np2 = 0.79) EG > CG in VSS (1/4, np2 = 0.23) Adherence: EG (94%), CG (94%) |
Unclear |
| Ordnung et al. (2017) [87] | Pre EG: n = 15, Age = 69.8 (6.3), F = n.a. CG: n = 15, Age = 68.6 (4.7), F = 53% Post (6 weeks) EG: n = 14, F = 50% CG: n = 15, F = 53% |
Germany Two Groups RCT Supervised |
6 weeks, 2 × 60 min per week EG: Xbox Kinect Video Sport Games CG: passive |
Pulse (only to prevent overexertion) |
EF (n = 2) PS (n = 2) |
EG ↑ *PS (r = 0.61 and r = 0.55) Adherence: EG (93%), CG (100%) |
low |
| Park and Yim (2016) [88] | Pre EG: n = 36, Age = 73 (3), F = 92% CG: n = 36, Age = 74.11 (2.9), F = 97% Post (6 weeks) EG: n = 36 CG: n = 36 |
Korea Two Groups RCT Supervised |
6 weeks, 2 × 30 min per week EG: 1 × 30 min of conventional training, then 3D virtual Kayak Tour CG: 1 × 30 min of conventional exercise (then passive) |
n.a. | MoCA | EG ↑ in MoCA CG ↓ in MoCA EG > CG in MoCA Adherence: EG (100%), CG (100%) |
Low |
| Schättin et al. (2016) [89] | Pre EG: n = 15 CG: n = 14 Post (8 weeks) EG: n = 13, Age = 80, F = 38% CG: n = 14, Age = 80, F = 50% |
Switzerland Two Groups RCT Supervised |
8 weeks, 3 × 30 min per week in groups (5 min warm-up, 5 min cool-down, 20 min group specific training) EG: Video Game Dance Platform CG: Conventional Balance Training |
n.a. | EF (n = 3) CP (n = 2) EEG: ERO (PFC, 1–30 Hz) |
EG ↑ *EF (r = 0.46–0.57) EG ↑ *CP (r = 0.40–0.50) CG ↑ in EF (1/3, r = 0.39) EG ↓ Theta Power during CP Adherence: EG (87%), CG (100%) |
Moderate |
| Schoene, et al. (2013) [90] | Pre EG: n = 18 CG: n = 19 Post (8 weeks) EG: n = 15, Age = 77.5 (4.5) CG: n = 17, Age = 78.4 (4.5) |
Australia Two Groups Unsupervised RCT |
8 weeks, 2–3 × 15–20 min per week EG: Video-game based Step Pad CG: Passive |
n.a. | EF (n = 1) PS (n = 1) CP (n = 1) DT (n = 2) |
EG > CG in CP EG > in DT (1/2) Adherence: EG (83%), CG (89%) |
Low |
| Schoene, et al. (2015) [76] | Pre EG: n = 47, Age = 82 (7), F = 66% CG: n = 43, Age = 81 (7), F = 67% Post (16 weeks) EG: n = 39 CG: n = 42 |
Australia Two Groups Unsupervised RCT |
16 weeks, 3 × 20 min per week EG: electronic step game CG: Passive (brochure on fall prevention) |
n.a. | EF (n = 3) PS (n = 3) CP (n = 2) VSS (n =1) DT (n = 2) |
EG > CG in PS (2/3) EG > CG in *CP EG > CG in VSS (1/2) EG > CG in DT (1/2) Adherence: EG (83%), CG (98%) |
Low |
| Studenski et al. (2010) [93] | Pre EG: n = 36, Age = 80.1 (5.4), F = 83% Post (12 weeks) EG: n = 25, Age = 80.2 (5.4), F = 80% |
USA One Group Supervised UT |
12 weeks, 2 × 45–60 min per week EG: Dance Dance Revolution |
n.a. | PS (n = 1) | Adherence: EG (70%) |
moderate |
Note: If reported, effect sizes are presented; * = all test measures for the respective domain were significant; d = Cohen’s effect size; r = Pearson’s correlation; np2 = partial Eta-squared; ↑ = within group improvements or ↓decrements; > or < = group by time interaction effects; BDNF = Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor; CG = Control Group; CP = Controlled Processing; DT = Dual-Task (motor-cognitive); EEG = Electroencephalography; EF = Executive Functions; EG = Experimental/Exergame Group; ELISA = Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; ERO = Event Related Oscillations; ERP = Event Related Potentials; F = Female; fNIRS = functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy; HbO2 = Oxygenated Hemoglobin; LTM = Long Term Memory; MMSE = Mini Mental State Examination; MoCA = Montreal Cognitive Assessment; n.a. = not available; PFC = Prefrontal Cortex (prefix: l = left, r = right); PS = Processing Speed; RCT = Randomized Controlled Trial; STM = Short Term Memory, UCT = Unrandomized Controlled Trial; UT = Uncontrolled Trial; VF = Verbal Fluency; VSS = Visuospatial Skill.