Table 2.
Model adjusted least-squares geometric mean concentrationsa (LSGMs, μg/L) and 95% confidence intervals of urinary metals by characteristics of the SWAN participants, including seafood and rice intake.
| LSGMs (μg/L)b | As | Ba | Cd | Co | Cs | Cu | Hg | Mn | Mo | Ni | Pb | Sb | Sn | Tl | Zn |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Race/ethnicity | |||||||||||||||
| White | 14.2 (12.5, 16.2) | 1.93 (1.74, 2.13) | 0.43 (0.39, 0.47) | 0.61 (0.56, 0.66) | 4.93 (4.64, 5.23) | 9.74 (9.16, 10.4) | 1.14 (1.04, 1.25) | 1.03 (0.95, 1.12) | 40.7 (37.6, 43.9) | 3.70 (3.46, 3.97) | 0.84 (0.77, 0.91) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.10) | 1.07 (0.95, 1.20) | 0.12 (0.11, 0.13) | 270 (249, 292) |
| Black | 12.6 (10.7, 14.8) | 1.36 (119, 1.54) | 0.43 (0.38, 0.49) | 0.51 (0.46, 0.56) | 3.67 (3.40, 3.95) | 8.66 (8.01, 9.37) | 0.89 (0.79, 1.00) | 0.92 (0.82, 1.02) | 31.8 (28.8, 35.0) | 2.66 (2.44, 2.90) | 0.80 (0.72, 0.89) | 0.08 (0.08, 0.09) | 1.07 (0.92, 1.23) | 0.11 (0.10, 0.13) | 342 (308, 378) |
| Chinese | 27.9 (21.4, 36.2) | 1.83 (1.49, 2.26) | 0.76 (0.62, 0.92) | 0.73 (0.62, 0.87) | 6.88 (6.09, 7.78) | 11.5 (10.1, 13.0) | 1.29 (1.06, 1.57) | 0.99 (0.84, 1.18) | 50.5 (43.1, 59.3) | 4.18 (3.63, 4.82) | 1.14 (0.96, 1.35) | 0.10 (0.08, 0.11) | 0.73 (0.58, 0.93) | 0.15 (0.13, 0.19) | 360 (305, 426) |
| Japanese | 24.6 (19.4, 31.2) | 1.83 (1.52, 2.22) | 0.83 (0.69, 0.99) | 0.59 (0.51, 0.69) | 4.17 (3.73, 4.66) | 10.2 (9.07, 11.5) | 1.31 (109, 1.57) | 1.02 (0.87, 1.20) | 50.2 (44.3, 59.3) | 3.72 (3.27, 4.24) | 0.88 (0.75, 1.03) | 0.07 (0.06, 0.09) | 0.91 (0.73, 1.13) | 0.14 (0.12, 0.17) | 340 (292, 396) |
| P-value | <.0001 | <.0001 | <.0001 | 0.0007 | <.0001 | 0.003 | 0.0004 | 0.24 | <.0001 | <.0001 | 0.008 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.07 | <.0001 |
| Education | |||||||||||||||
| ≤ High school | 17.7 (15.2, 20.6) | 1.70 (151, 1.93) | 0.62 (0.55, 0.69) | 0.61 (0.55, 0.68) | 4.87 (4.53, 5.24) | 10.1 (9.34, 10.9) | 1.01 (0.90, 1.13) | 1.01 (0.91, 1.12) | 42.4 (38.6, 46.6) | 3.51 (3.23, 3.81) | 0.90 (0.81, 0.99) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.10) | 0.87 (0.76, 1.00) | 0.13 (0.11, 0.14) | 342 (310, 378) |
| Some College | 20.0 (17.5, 22.9) | 1.83 (1.64, 2.04) | 0.61 (0.55, 0.68) | 0.60 (0.55, 0.65) | 4.70 (4.41, 5.01) | 9.97 (9.33, 10.7) | 1.21 (109, 1.33) | 0.97 (0.88, 1.06) | 43.7 (40.2, 47.5) | 3.56 (3.31, 3.83) | 0.90 (0.83, 0.99) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.09) | 1.01 (0.90, 1.15) | 0.14 (0.13, 0.16) | 336 (308, 366) |
| ≥ College | 18.5 (16.1, 21.3) | 1.63 (1.46, 1.82) | 0.52 (0.47, 0.58) | 0.60 (0.55, 0.66) | 4.74 (4.44, 5.06) | 9.85 (9.20, 10.5) | 1.23 (1.11, 1.37) | 0.99 (0.90, 1.09) | 42.2 (38.8, 46.0) | 3.49 (3.24, 3.76) | 0.92 (0.84, 1.01) | 0.08 (0.07, 0.09) | 0.92 (0.82, 1.05) | 0.13 (0.12, 0.14) | 301 (276, 330) |
| P for trend | 0.34 | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.26 | 0.58 | 0.38 | 0.0007 | 0.49 | 0.46 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.01 | 0.81 | 0.79 | 0.0008 |
| Financial hardship | |||||||||||||||
| Severe | 17.3 (13.7, 22.0) | 1.69 (1.40, 2.04) | 0.58 (0.49, 0.70) | 0.62 (0.53, 0.72) | 4.71 (4.21, 5.26) | 10.1 (9.00, 11.3) | 1.07 (0.90, 1.28) | 0.99(0.85, 1.16) | 43.3 (37.5, 50.1) | 3.60 (3.17, 4.09) | 0.95 (0.81, 1.11) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.10) | 0.91 (0.73, 1.13) | 0.13 (0.11, 0.16) | 342 (294, 398) |
| Moderate | 19.1 (16.7, 21.8) | 1.67 (1.50, 1.86) | 0.61 (0.55, 0.68) | 0.60 (0.55, 0.66) | 4.85 (4.55, 5.17) | 10.1 (9.49, 10.8) | 1.14 (1.03, 1.26) | 1.03 (0.94, 1.12) | 42.1 (38.8, 45.7) | 3.51 (3.26, 3.77) | 0.92 (0.84, 1.00) | 0.08 (0.08, 0.09) | 0.96 (0.85, 1.09) | 0.14 (0.12, 0.15) | 316 (290, 345) |
| Minor | 19.9 (17.9, 22.0) | 1.80 (1.66, 1.96) | 0.55 (0.51, 0.60) | 0.59 (0.56, 0.63) | 4.76 (4.53, 5.00) | 9.65 (9.18, 10.2) | 1.22 (113, 1.32) | 0.95 (0.89, 1.02) | 42.9 (40.2, 45.7) | 3.45 (3.26, 3.65) | 0.86 (0.80, 0.92) | 0.08 (0.08, 0.09) | 0.93 (0.85, 1.02) | 0.13 (0.12, 0.14) | 320 (299, 342) |
| P for trend | 0.44 | 0.19 | 0.10 | 0.63 | 0.67 | 0.18 | 0.10 | 0.19 | 0.89 | 0.51 | 0.08 | 0.32 | 0.84 | 0.26 | 0.78 |
| Smoking | |||||||||||||||
| Never | 18.6 (16.6, 20.9) | 1.65 (1.50, 1.80) | 0.45 (0.41, 0.49) | 0.65 (0.61, 0.70) | 4.66 (4.42, 4.92) | 10.0 (9.47, 10.6) | 1.21 (1.11, 1.31) | 0.95 (0.88, 1.02) | 44.8 (41.8, 48.0) | 3.74 (3.52, 3.98) | 0.80 (0.74, 0.86) | 0.08 (0.07, 0.09) | 0.95 (0.85, 1.05) | 0.14 (0.13, 0.15) | 310 (288, 333) |
| Former | 18.9 (16.4, 21.9) | 1.70 (151, 1.90) | 0.54 (0.48, 0.60) | 0.60 (0.55, 0.66) | 4.87 (4.55, 5.21) | 10.1 (9.36, 10.8) | 1.09 (0.98, 1.22) | 1.02 (0.92, 1.12) | 42.8 (39.1, 46.7) | 3.53 (3.27, 3.82) | 0.88 (0.80, 0.97) | 0.08 (0.07, 0.09) | 0.82 (0.72, 0.93) | 0.13 (0.12, 0.15) | 320 (296, 357) |
| Current | 18.6 (15.2, 22.7) | 1.83 (1.56, 2.14) | 0.82 (0.70, 0.95) | 0.56 (0.49, 0.64) | 4.79 (4.36, 5.26) | 9.82 (8.91, 10.8) | 1.13 (0.97, 1.31) | 1.00 (0.88, 1.15) | 40.9 (36.2, 46.2) | 3.30 (2.96, 3.67) | 1.06 (0.93, 1.20) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.10) | 1.06 (0.88, 1.26) | 0.13 (0.11, 0.15) | 344 (302, 390) |
| P for trend | 0.66 | 0.29 | <.0001 | 0.002 | 0.21 | 0.55 | 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.16 | 0.005 | <.0001 | 0.12 | 0.70 | 0.54 | 0.08 |
| Secondhand smoking | |||||||||||||||
| 0 hr/wk | 19.2 (16.8, 21.9) | 1.67 (1.50, 1.85) | 0.61 (0.55, 0.67) | 0.59 (0.54, 0.65) | 4.75 (4.46, 5.06) | 9.91 (9.29, 10.6) | 1.12 (101, 1.23) | 1.04 (0.96, 1.14) | 44.7 (41.2, 48.5) | 3.44 (3.20, 3.70) | 0.86 (0.79, 0.94) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.09) | 0.92 (0.82, 1.04) | 0.14 (0.12, 0.15) | 316 (290, 344) |
| <5 hrs/wk | 17.8 (15.3, 20.9) | 1.76 (1.56, 1.99) | 0.56 (0.50, 0.63) | 0.62 (0.57, 0.69) | 4.73 (4.40, 5.08) | 10.3 (9.60, 11.1) | 1.14 (1.02, 1.28) | 0.97 (0.88, 1.08) | 40.7 (37.1, 44.7) | 3.59 (3.31, 3.90) | 0.92 (0.83, 1.02) | 0.08 (0.07, 0.09) | 0.95 (0.82, 1.08) | 0.13 (0.11, 0.14) | 319 (289, 352) |
| ≥5 hs/wk | 19.3 (16.6, 22.3) | 1.73 (1.54, 1.95) | 0.59 (0.52, 0.65) | 0.60 (0.55, 0.66) | 4.83 (4.52, 5.18) | 9.64 (8.98, 10.4) | 1.17 (1.05, 1.31) | 0.95 (0.86, 1.05) | 43.0 (39.3, 46.9) | 3.53 (3.26, 3.82) | 0.94 (0.85, 1.03) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.10) | 0.94 (0.82, 1.07) | 0.13 (0.12, 0.15) | 344 (313, 377) |
| P for trend | 0.82 | 0.30 | 0.58 | 0.25 | 0.70 | 0.72 | 0.30 | 0.09 | 0.47 | 0.52 | 0.005 | 0.37 | 0.20 | 0.47 | 0.06 |
| Seafood intake | |||||||||||||||
| <1 /wk | 15.3 (13.2, 17.7) | 1.69 (151, 1.90) | 0.57 (0.51, 0.63) | 0.60 (0.55, 0.66) | 4.52 (4.22, 4.84) | 9.83 (9.15, 10.6) | 1.03 (0.92, 1.15) | 0.96 (0.87, 1.05) | 40.6 (37.1, 44.3) | 3.44 (3.18, 3.72) | 0.87 (0.79, 0.96) | 0.08 (0.08, 0.09) | 0.91 (0.80, 1.03) | 0.13 (0.11, 0.14) | 324 (295, 356) |
| 1–1.9 /wk | 17.9 (15.7, 20.6) | 1.64 (1.47, 1.82) | 0.57 (0.51, 0.63) | 0.60 (0.55, 0.65) | 4.93 (4.62, 5.25) | 9.76 (9.13, 10.4) | 1.17 (1.05, 1.29) | 0.97 (0.89, 1.06) | 43.4 (40.0, 47.2) | 3.49 (3.24, 3.75) | 0.88 (0.81, 0.96) | 0.08 (0.07, 0.09) | 1.00 (0.89, 1.13) | 0.13 (0.12, 0.15) | 328 (301, 358) |
| ≥2 /wk | 23.8 (20.9, 27.2) | 1.84 (1.66, 2.04) | 0.62 (0.56, 0.69) | 0.61 (0.56, 0.67) | 4.87 (4.58, 5.18) | 10.3 (9.67, 11.0) | 1.24 (1.12, 1.37) | 1.04 (0.96, 1.14) | 44.4 (40.9, 48.2) | 3.64 (3.39, 3.90) | 0.97 (0.89, 1.06) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.09) | 0.90 (0.80, 1.01) | 0.14 (0.13, 0.15) | 326 (299, 354) |
| P for trend | <.0001 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.47 | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.002 | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.52 | 0.93 | 0.09 | 0.74 |
| Rice intake | |||||||||||||||
| <1.5 /wk | 15.8 (13.5, 18.4) | 1.69 (1.49, 1.91) | 0.56 (0.50, 0.63) | 0.59 (0.54, 0.65) | 4.59 (4.26, 4.94) | 9.79 (9.08, 10.6) | 1.04 (0.93, 1.17) | 0.99 (0.89, 1.10) | 40.9 (37.2, 45.0) | 3.43 (3.15, 3.73) | 0.88 (0.79, 0.97) | 0.08 (0.07, 0.09) | 0.87 (0.76, 1.00) | 0.13 (0.11, 0.14) | 323 (293, 357) |
| 1.5–3.4 /wk | 16.00 (13.8, 18.5) | 1.68 (1.49, 1.89) | 0.57 (0.51, 0.63) | 0.58 (0.52, 0.63 | 4.60 (4.29, 4.93) | 9.49 (8.83, 10.2) | 1.11 (0.99, 1.24) | 0.99 (0.90, 1.9) | 40.2 (36.8, 44.0) | 3.34 (3.08, 3.61) | 0.89 (0.81, 0.98) | 0.08 (0.07, 0.09) | 0.90 (0.79, 1.03) | 0.13 (0.11, 0.14) | 336 (306, 370) |
| ≥3.5 /wk | 26.1 (22.3, 30.5) | 1.80 (1.59, 2.04) | 0.63 (0.56, 0.70) | 0.65 (0.59, 0.72) | 5.15 (4.79, 5.54) | 10.6 (9.86, 11.5) | 1.29 (115, 1.45) | 0.99 (0.89, 1.10) | 47.5 (43.2, 52.2) | 3.81 (3.51, 4.15) | 0.95 (0.86, 1.05) | 0.09 (0.08, 0.10) | 1.04 (0.90, 1.19) | 0.14 (0.13, 0.16) | 319 (288, 352) |
| P for trend | <.0001 | 0.98 | 0.07 | 0.99 | 0.002 | 0.56 | 0.003 | 0.55 | 0.09 | 0.65 | 0.14 | 0.97 | 0.29 | 0.06 | 0.60 |
a
All models were adjusted for age, race/ethnicity, education, financial hardship, smoking, secondhand smoking, seafood intake, rice intake, total energy intake, study sites and urinary creatinine.
b
For values greater than 1, 3 significant figures were shown; for values less than 1, values were shown to 2 decimal places.