Table 1.

Studies that targeted mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in tumor-associated macrophage polarization

Mechanism	Action	Effect on cytokines	References
Activation of p38 and ERK	Promotes repolarization of M2-TAMs towards M1 TAMs	1 - Enhances IL12 and IFN-γ generation 2 - Downregulates TGFβ	[32]
Inhibition of p38/MK2	Impairs M2 polarization and M2 macrophage-induced angiogenesis	Decreases the expression of CD206, arginase-1 and IL-10	[34]
Inhibition of ERK	Impairs the differentiation of monocytes to M2 TAMs	Decreases the expression of CD163, IL-10, and chemokines CCL17 and CCL18	[35]
Blocking ERK5	Promotes repolarization of M2-TAMs towards M1 TAMs	1 - Upregulates iNos and IL12β 2 - Downregulates TGFβ, IL10 and VEGFA mRNA expression	[36]

MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase, TAMs: Tumour-associated macrophages, ERK: Extracellular signal-regulated kinase, MK2: MAPKAP kinase 2, IL: Interleukin, IFN: Interferon, TGF: Transforming growth factor, VEGFA: Vascular endothelial growth factor A, CCL: CC chemokine ligand, iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase, mRNA: Messenger RNA