Table 1.

Effects of fruit heteromorphism vs. monomorphism on the incidence of naturalization (expressed as being naturalized outside of Europe or not) and extent of naturalization (natural log-transformed number of regions where the species is naturalized) of native Central European Asteraceae species (Models 1), and effects of heteromorphism vs. monomorphism, annual/biennial vs. perennial life history, plant height and pair-wise interactions between heteromorphism and the other two traits on the same response variables (Models 2)

Response variables	Incidence of naturalization			Extent of naturalization (log)
Explanatory variables	χ 2 test/GLM	Phylo GLM	R 2 par	LM	Phylo LM	R 2 par
Models 1	n = 328, R2lr = 0.051			n = 103, R2lr = 0.029
Fruit heteromorphism (FHM)	8.236**	2.580**	0.045	1.175	1.162	0.013
Models 2	n = 321, R2lr = 0.195			n = 102, R2lr = 0.079
FHM	–0.838	–0.263	0.001	–0.450	–0.248	0.005
Life history	–4.386***	–4.376***	0.091	–1.867	–1.940*	0.031
Plant height	2.648**	2.564*	0.047	0.122	–0.297	0.000
FHM × life history	1.490	1.765	0.012	0.767	0.880	0.007
FHM × plant height	0.186	–0.393	0.000	0.715	0.957	0.008

Pearson’s χ² test of contingency in univariate models and generalized linear models (GLMs) in multivariate models, followed by phylogenetic logistic regressions, were used in the case of incidence of naturalization (z statistics are shown), and linear models (LMs) followed by phylogenetic linear regressions in the case of extent of naturalization (t statistics are shown) in both models.

Asterisks denote significance at *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.

Total explained variance of the models (R²_lr), and the partial variances explained by each variable (R²_par) are also shown.

Sample size refers to the total number of species in the analysed datasets.