Fig. 10.

Simulated effect of tonic dopamine (DA) on value and reward prediction error (RPE) against objective time. A: in our model, higher-DA conditions lead to a faster pacemaker and more compressed features, which serve as states. By Eq. 4, this leads to a steeper slope in the value function when measured against objective time. B: DA response, computed by Eq. 4, and based on the corresponding value functions in A. Left and right dashed lines denote conditioned stimulus and reward time, respectively.