Table. Characteristics of sampling sites in environmental hotspots tested for azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus, the Netherlands.
| Sampling site |
Type* |
Total, CFU/g |
Azole-resistant, CFU/g |
Resistance mutations (no. colonies) |
Azole fungicide (mg/L)† |
| Wheat grain | |||||
| Dry | R | <20 | <20 | NT | Epoxiconazole; tebuconazole |
| Moist | R | <20 | <20 | NT | Epoxiconazole; tebuconazole |
| Organic |
O |
<20 |
<20 |
NT |
NT |
| Poultry manure | R | <20 | <20 | NT | NT |
|
|
O |
<20 |
<20 |
NT |
NT |
| Cattle manure | R | <20 | <20 | NT | Tebuconazole (0.3); epoxiconazole (0.048); prochloraz (0.017); prochlorazdesimidazole-amino (0.34) |
|
|
O |
<20 |
<20 |
NT |
Tebuconazole (0.08); epoxiconazole (0.051); proprioconazole (0.038); prothioconazole-destio (0.0205); difenoconazole |
| Horse manure/straw | R | <20 | <20 | NT | Tebuconazole (0.082); prochlorazdesimidazole-amino (0.048); epoxiconazole (0.021); cyproconazole (0.012) |
|
|
O |
<20 |
<20 |
NT |
Tebuconazole (0.015) |
| Maize silage | |||||
| With Retengo‡ | R | <20 | <20 | NT | Epoxiconazole (0.012) |
| Without Retengo‡ |
R |
<20 |
<20 |
NT |
NT |
| Fruit waste | R | <20 | <20 | NT | NT |
|
|
O |
<20 |
<20 |
NT |
Tebuconazole |
| Exotic fruit waste | R | <20 | <20 | NT | Imazalil (0.22) |
|
|
O |
<20 |
<20 |
NT |
NT |
| Household waste, privately owned | R | 6.4 × 104 | 1.5 × 103 | TR34/L98H (10); TR34/L98H/S302N (1) | NT |
| Household waste, privately owned, duplicate | R | 2.7 × 105 | 1.8 × 103 | NT | NT |
| Household waste, privately owned | O + R | 100 | <100 | NT | Prothioconazole; epoxiconazole |
| Household waste, privately owned | O | <20 | <20 | NT | NT |
| Household waste, fresh | R | 2.3 × 103 | 200 | NT | Iprodion (0.024) |
| Household waste, after 1 wk | R | <100 | <100 | NT | Propiconazole (0.013); difenoconazole |
| Household waste, after 3 wk |
R |
200 |
<100 |
NT |
Propiconazole (0.021); tebuconazole (0.012); difenoconazole |
| Flower bulb waste | |||||
| Location 1 | R | 2 × 104 | 4.3 × 103 | TR34/L98H (6); TR46/Y121F/T289A (7) | Prothioconazole (6.4); prothiconazoledestio (0.15); prochloraz (0.11); prochloraz-desimidazole-amino (0.085) |
| O + R | 1.2 × 104 | 2.5 × 103 | TR34/L98H (7); TR34/L98H/F495I (1); TR46/Y121F/T289A (2); TR92/Y121F/M172I/T289A/G448S (1) | Prothioconazole (1.9); prochloraz (0.09); prochloraz-desimidazole-amino (0.086); prothiconazole-destio (0.07) | |
| Location 2 | O + R | 2.9 × 103 | 180 | TR34/L98H (4); TR34/L98H/S297T/F495I (1); TR46/Y121F/T289A/I36 4V (1) | Prothioconazole (0.43); prochloraz (0.044); prothiconazole-destio (0.026); epoxiconazole; azaconazole |
| O + R | 2.7 × 104 | 3.9 × 103 | TR34/L98H (5); TR46/Y121F/T289A (3) | Prochloraz (0.18); 2,4,6-trichloorphenol (0.17); prothioconazole (0.033); prothiconazole-destio (0.01); tebuconazole (0.022) prochloraz (0.011) | |
| Location 2, 1 y later | O + R | 9.4 × 105 | 2.3 × 105 | TR34/L98H (5); TR46/Y121F/T289A (6); TR92/Y121F/M172I/T289A/G448S (1) | Prothioconazole (1.3); prothiconazoledestio (0.033); difenoconazole; epoxiconazole; penconazole; propriconazole; azaconazole; tebuconazole |
| O + R | 8 × 103 | 103 | NT | Prothioconazole (1.1); prochloraz (0.043); prothiconazole-destio (0.026); epoxiconazole; azaconazole | |
| Location 3 |
O + R |
3 × 105 |
9 × 104 |
NT |
Prothioconazole (0.72); prothiconazoledestio (0.026); tebuconazole |
| Flower bulb fermentation |
O + R |
20 |
<20 |
NT |
Prothioconazole (1.9); prothiconazoledestio (0.028); tebuconazole (0.021); epoxiconazole |
| Green waste, location A, 2015 | |||||
| 0–1 wk old | R | 9.4 × 104 | 8 × 103 | TR34/L98H (12) | Tebuconazole |
| 5–6 wk old | R | 1.9 × 106 | 8.4 × 104 | TR34/L98H (2) | Tebuconazole (0.004) |
| 7 wk old |
R |
2.7 × 105 |
3.6 × 103 |
TR34/L98H (10); TR34/L98H/L343H (1); TR34/L98H/E356V (1) |
Tebuconazole (0.001) |
| Green waste, location A, 2016 | |||||
| 5–6 wk old | R | 3 × 105 | 9 × 104 | NT | Tebuconazole; prothioconazole |
| 7 wk old |
R |
2.2 × 103 |
60 |
NT |
Tebuconazole; prothioconazole |
| Green waste, location B, 2016 | |||||
| 5–6 wk old | R | 7 × 104 | 2.8 × 103 | NT | Tebuconazole; prothioconazole |
| 7 wk old |
R |
2.2 × 103 |
60 |
NT |
Tebuconazole |
| Wood chippings waste | |||||
| Location 1, 2015 | R | 6.2 × 104 | 3.6 × 103 | TR34/L98H (18) | Azaconazole (0.53); propioconazole (0.036); tebuconazole (0.013) |
| R | 104 | 1.3 × 103 | NT | Azaconazole (0.53); propioconazole (0.036); tebuconazole (0.013) | |
| Location 1, 2016 | R | 3 × 105 | 6 × 103 | NT | Propioconazole (0.022); azaconazole; tebuconazole |
| Location 2, 2016 | R | 60 | <20 | NT | Azaconazole (0.53); propioconazole (0.026); tebuconazole (0.02) |
*O, organic cultivation; NT, not tested; O + R, cultivation in transition from regular to organic; R, regular cultivation. †If no fungicide concentration is shown, the concentration could not be quantified (i.e., <0.001 mg/L). ‡Retengo is a fungicide that contains 50 g/L of epoxiconazole.