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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2019 Nov 17.
Published in final edited form as: Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book. 2019 May 17;39:165–174. doi: 10.1200/EDBK_237987

FIGURE 2. VEGF Modulates Immune Cells to Promote an Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment.

FIGURE 2.

Beyond its indirect ability to promote immunosuppression via an abnormal tumor vasculature, VEGF can directly influence immune cells in the tumor microenvironment and systemically by promoting immunosuppressive cells such as Tregs, MDSCs, and protumor TAMs, while inhibiting antigenpresenting cells (such as DCs and antitumor TAMs) and CTLs. Dotted gray lines indicate differentiation from iMCs to TAMs, iDCs, and MDSCs. Abbreviations: IFN, interferon; CTL, cytotoxic T lymphocyte; Treg, regulatory T cell; iDC, immature dendritic cell; MDSC, myeloid-derived suppressor cell; TAM, tumor-associated macrophage; iMC, immature myeloid cell; IL, interleukin; TGF, transforming growth factor; matDC, mature dendritic cell; DC, dendritic cell.