LTL was measured using real-time quantitative PCR and expressed as a ratio to a housekeeping gene (T/S ratio). Data shown are normalized to an internal control. Differences in LTL are shown between (a) individuals treated with different cART regimens, (b) individuals with (use) or without (no use) a past history of substance use (cannabis, amphetamines, legal intoxicants, and 5-MeO-DIPT), and (c) individuals who achieved plasma HIV viral loads <40 RNA copies/mL (<40) or failed to achieve this level of control (>40) after 1 year of starting cART. * indicates statistical significance with P value obtained from the Bonferroni–Dunn test; ** indicates statistical significance with P value obtained from the Mann-Whitney U-test. Abbreviations: cART, combination antiretroviral therapy; NNRTI, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor; PI, protease inhibitor, INSTI, integrase strand transfer inhibitor.