Fig. 4.

In vitro evaluation of Apt-bioinspired MVs-guided biomineralization. a Schematic illustration of mechanism of biomineralization. b Alizarin Red staining of osteoblasts cultured with Apt-bioinspired MVs (50 ppm), bioinspired MVs (50 ppm), and PLGA NPs (50 ppm) with or without NIR irradiation (0.2 W cm⁻²), respectively. Scale bars are 100 μm. ALP staining analysis (c) and western blots analysis of OCN, Col1a1 and Runx2 expression levels (d) of osteoblasts treated with Apt-bioinspired MVs (50 ppm), bioinspired MVs (50 ppm), and PLGA NPs (50 ppm) with or without NIR irradiation (0.2 W cm⁻²), respectively. The expression level of (e) ALP and (f) Runx 2 of osteoblasts cultured with Apt-bioinspired MVs (50 ppm), bioinspired MVs (50 ppm), and PLGA NPs (50 ppm) with or without NIR irradiation (0.2 W cm⁻²), respectively. Data are means ± s.d. (n = 3), *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001 (unpaired two-tailed Student’s t-test). Source data of d–f are provided as a Source Data file