Fig. 5.

SCFAs and pioglitazone inhibit hippocampal neuroinflammation and protect against neuronal loss in high-fructose diet-fed C57BL/6N mice. a TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA levels in the hippocampus (n = 6). b Representative immunofluorescence images and quantitative analysis of Iba-1-positive cells (red), DCX-positive cells (green), NeuN-positive cells (red), and GFAP-positive cells (green) with nuclear counterstain (blue) in the hippocampal DG. Bars, 25 μm. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 indicate significant difference. C control group, F₂ 12-week fructose-fed group, S SCFAs-treated group, P pioglitazone-treated group