Table 1.
Musculoskeletal disease-related γ-carboxylated proteins. Among 20 kinds of proteins known to be γ-carboxylated, 9 proteins are related or possibly related to musculoskeletal diseases.
| Proteins | Expression | Function | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Osteocalcin (Bone Gla protein, BGP) | Osteoblast | Regulation of bone calcification, Regulation of glucose metabolism? Enhancing male fertility? | [23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30] |
| Matrix Gla protein (MGP) | Chondrocyte, vascular smooth muscle cell, etc. | Regulation of calcification | [31,32,33,34] |
| Growth arrest specific-6 (GAS6) | Lung, heart, kidney, intestine, endothelium, vascular smooth muscle cell, bone marrow, osteoblast, osteoclast, monocyte, etc. | Thrombus formation; Inflammation; Cell proliferation; Enhancing osteoclast activity | [35,36,37,38] |
| Protein S | Liver, endothelium, monocyte, etc. | Anti-coagulation; Enhancing osteoclast activity | [37,39,40,41] |
| Periostin | Periosteum, periodontal ligament, heart valve, adrenal gland, lung, thyroid, intestine, ovary, testis, prostate | Maintenance of periodontal ligament; Bone development and maintenance | [42,43] |
| TGFβ induced (TGFBI) | Bone, joint, skin, cornea, kidney. | Bone development; Maintenance of cornea | [42,44,45] |
| Gla-rich protein (GRP)/Upper zone of growth plate and cartilage matrix associated protein (Ucma) | Chondrocyte, osteoblast, osteocyte, vascular smooth muscle cell, skin | Suppression of inflammation; Suppression of calcification in blood vessels and articular cartilages | [46,47,48] |
| Androgen receptor | Testis, prostate, muscle, brain, prostate cancer | Induction of male sexual characteristics; Promotion of prostate cancer; Bone protection; Enhancing skeletal muscle mass | [49,50,51,52,53] |
| γ-glutamyl carboxylase (GGCX) | Systemic (High expression in liver) | γ-carboxylation of proteins | [54] |