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. 2019 Jun 5;20(11):2761. doi: 10.3390/ijms20112761

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© 2019 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Signaling cascades in integrated stress response (ISR) and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. IRE1: Inositol-requiring enzyme 1; XBP1: X-box binding protein 1; ATF6: Activating transcription factor 6; and PP1: Protein phosphatase 1. Arrow: activation; Flat line: inhibition.