Table 2.
Evidence of risk factors that could contribute to MACEs.
| Risk factors | References | Study design | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|
| COPD exacerbations | Kunisaki et al. (15) | Cohort analysis | 3.8 HR for CVD events 30-day post-exacerbation |
| Kunisaki et al. (15) | Cohort analysis | 9.9 HR for CVD events 30-day post-hospitalized exacerbation | |
| Donaldson et al. (16) | Retrospective | 2.27 higher MI risk 1 to 5 days post-exacerbation | |
| Donaldson et al. (16) | Retrospective | 1.26 higher stroke risk 1 to 49 days post-exacerbation | |
| Rothnie et al. (17) | Retrospective | 2.58 incidence rate ratio for MI, severe exacerbation | |
| Rothnie et al. (17) | Retrospective | 1.58 incidence rate ratio for MI, moderate exacerbation | |
| Smoking | Hackshaw et al. (28) | Meta-analysis | RR of CHD, 1 cigarrete/day: 1.74 for men, 2.19 for women |
| RR of CHD, 20 cigarretes/day: 2:27 for men, 3.95 for women | |||
| Center for disease control and prevention | Risk of CHD mortality: increased by 4 times for men, 5 times for women | ||
| Risk of COPD mortality: increased by 17 times for men, 12 times for women | |||
| Mulpuru et al. (29) | Prospective, multicenter | Smokers with COPD exacerbations: double risk for ICU admision | |
| Lubin et al. (30) | Prospective cohort | RR for CVD: higher with duration vs. qauntity smoked/day | |
| Bhatt et al. (31) | Cross-sectional, multicenter | RR for COPD: higher with duration vs. pack-years index | |
| Air pollution | World Health Organization (32) | Causes 7 mil. deaths worlwide: 58% CVD and 18% COPD | |
| Pope et al. (33) | Prosective cohort | 1.34 HR for CVD mortality with long-term exposure to PM2.5 | |
| Hyperlipidemia | Bartlett et al. (34) | Prosective cohort | 1.3 OR for CVD with low HDL-C+TG or LDL ≥ 100 mg/dl |
| 1.6 OR for CVD with low HDL-C+TG and LDL-C ≥ 100 mg/dl | |||
| Tipping et al. (35) | Meta-analysis | 1.13 RR for CHD/3.5-fold higher usual Lp(a) | |
| Shen et al. (36) | Prospective cohort | Increased serum Ox-LDL in COPD patients vs. controls | |
| Basil et al. (37) | Cross-sectional | COPD vs. controls: no diference in TC, HDL-C, LDL-C and TG | |
| COPD patients: lower Apo B-100 and Lp(a) | |||
| Chan et al. (38) | Retrospective | Hyperlipidemia+COPD: 0.64 HR for mortality | |
| Diabetes mellitus | Baigent et al. (39) | Meta-analysis | Increases CVD mortality by 2–6 times |
| Peters et al. (40) | Systematic review | CHD risk higher for women vs. men with DM | |
| Mulpuru et al. (29) | Prospective | COPD exacerbation+DM with end organ complication: 3.5 OR for ICU admission | |
| COPD exacerbation+DM without end organ complication: 1.7 OR for ICU admmission | |||
| Hypertension | Lawes et al. (41) | Causes 47% of all CHD and 54% of all stroke | |
| Lewington et al. (42) | Meta-analysis | Double CVD mortality with every 20 mmg over BP of 115/75 |
COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CVD, cardiovascular disease; CHD, coronary heart disease; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; HDL, high-density lipoprotein, HR, hazard ratio; RR, relative risk; WHO, World Health Organization.