Table 1.
Effects of immune cells on bone remodeling.
| Immune cells | Main functional factors | Effects on osteoclastogenesis | Effects on osteogenesis |
|---|---|---|---|
| M1 macrophages | IL-1 | Activation (127, 128) | Activation (143, 144)/Inhibition (148, 149) |
| TNF-α | Activation (129–132) | Activation (147, 150)/Inhibition (148, 149) | |
| OSM | Activation (151, 152) | Activation (141, 142) | |
| M2 macrophages | IL-10 | Inhibition (110) | Activation (153)/Inhibition (154, 155) |
| TGF-β | Dural (120, 121) | Activation (134) | |
| Th1 cells | IFNγ | Inhibition (105) | Activation (156, 157)/Inhibition (238) |
| GM-CSF | Activation(106, 107)/Inhibition (102–104) | Activation (158) | |
| Th2 cells | IL-4 | Inhibition (108, 109) | Inhibition (159) |
| IL-6 | Activation (111–113) | Activation (136–140) | |
| Th17 cells | IL-17 | Activation (114, 115) | Activation (145, 146)/Inhibition (160) |
| Treg cells | CTLA-4 | Inhibition (119) | – |
CTLA-4, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; IFNγ, interferon-γ; IL, interleukin; OSM, oncostatin M; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; Th, T helper; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor α; Treg, regulatory T.