Table 1.
Socio-demographic characteristics of female survey participants in the 2005, 2011 and 2016, Ethiopian DHS.
| Background characteristics |
2005
n (%) |
2011
n (%) |
2016
n (%) |
aP-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | 7,306 | 7,908 | 7585 | (Test for trend) |
| Individual Level SD | ||||
| Age when giving last birth (years) | ||||
| <20 | 992 (13.6) | 861 (10.9) | 704 (9.3) | <0.01 |
| 20-−34 | 4,308 (59.0) | 5,021 (63.5) | 4,922 (64.9) | <0.01 |
| 35–49 | 2,006 (27.4) | 2,026 (25.6) | 1,959 (25.8) | 0.03 |
| Order of the last birth | ||||
| First | 1,190 (16.3) | 1,399 (17.7) | 1,431 (18.9) | <0.01 |
| Second or third | 2,089 (28.6) | 2,462 (31.1) | 2,282 (30.1) | 0.05 |
| Fourth or higher | 4,027 (55.1) | 4,047 (51.2) | 3,872 (51.0) | <0.01 |
| Marital status | ||||
| Not living with partner | 535 (7.3) | 723 (9.1) | 480 (6.3) | 0.02 |
| Living with partner | 6,771 (92.7) | 7,185 (90.9) | 7,105 (93.7) | 0.02 |
| Religion | ||||
| 1Christianity | 4,741 (64.9) | 5,171 (65.4) | 4,600 (60.7) | <0.01 |
| Islam | 2,382 (32.6) | 2,563 (32.4) | 2,824 (37.2) | <0.01 |
| 2Other | 183 (2.5) | 169 (2.2) | 161 (2.1) | 0.12 |
| Education level of the women | ||||
| No education | 5,734 (78.5) | 5,270 (66.6) | 4,791 (63.2) | <0.01 |
| Primary | 1,204 (16.5) | 2,270 (28.7) | 2,148 (28.3) | <0.01 |
| Secondary and above | 368 (5.0) | 368 (4.7) | 646 (8.5) | <0.01 |
| bEmployment status of the women | ||||
| Unemployed | 5,497 (75.2) | 5,132 (64.9) | 5,416 (71.4) | <0.01 |
| Employed | 1,808 (24.7) | 2,768 (35.0) | 2,169 (28.6) | <0.01 |
| Education level of their partners | ||||
| No education | 4,282 (59.2) | 3,858 (49.6) | 3,346 (47.4) | <0.01 |
| Primary | 2,109 (29.2) | 3,183 (41.0) | 2,731 (38.7) | <0.01 |
| Secondary and above | 836 (11.6) | 730 (9.4) | 985 (13.9) | <0.01 |
| Employment status of their partners | ||||
| Unemployed | 204 (2.8) | 148 (1.9) | 1,042 (13.7) | <0.01 |
| Employed | 7,049 (97.2) | 7,649 (97.2) | 6,063 (79.9) | <0.01 |
| In a polygamous relationship | ||||
| No | 5,961 (88.6) | 6,385 (88.9) | 6,343 (89.3) | <0.01 |
| Yes | 769 (11.4) | 800 (11.1) | 762 (10.7) | 0.34 |
| Sex of household head | ||||
| Female | 888 (12.2) | 1,297 (16.4) | 1,115 (14.7) | <0.01 |
| Male | 6,418 (87.8) | 6,611 (83.6) | 6,470 (85.3) | <0.01 |
| c Self-reported empowerment of women | ||||
| Not involved at all in decision making | 913 (13.5) | 855 (11.9) | 789 (11.1) | <0.01 |
| Involved in one | 1,306 (19.3) | 981 (13.7) | 491 (6.9) | <0.01 |
| Involved in two | 1,614 (23.8) | 1,562 (21.7) | 915 (12.9) | <0.01 |
| Involved in at least three | 2938 (43.4) | 3787 (52.7) | 4910 (69.1) | <0.01 |
| Household wealth index | ||||
| Low | 3,074 (42.1) | 3,435 (43.4) | 3,306 (43.6) | 0.06 |
| Middle | 1,586 (21.7) | 1,628 (20.6) | 1,588 (20.9) | 0.25 |
| High | 2,646 (36.2) | 2,845 (36.0) | 2,691 (35.5) | 0.35 |
| Exposure to mass media | ||||
| No exposure | 4,630 (70.8) | 3,214 (47.4) | 5,024 (72.6) | <0.01 |
| Exposed to either radio or TV | 1,474 (22.6) | 1,802 (26.6) | 741 (10.7) | <0.01 |
| Exposed to both radio and TV | 434 (6.6) | 1,767 (26.0) | 1,156 (16.7) | <0.01 |
| Use of antenatal care (ANC) | ||||
| No | 5,225 (71.5) | 4,517 (57.1) | 2,818 (37.2) | <0.01 |
| Yes | 2,081 (28.5) | 3,391 (42.9) | 4,767 (62.8) | <0.01 |
| Number of ANC Visits | ||||
| 0 | 5,225 (71.5) | 4,517 (57.1) | 2,818 (37.2) | <0.01 |
| 1–3 | 1,164 (15.9) | 1,856 (23.5) | 2,342 (30.9) | <0.01 |
| > 3 | 917 (12.6) | 1,535 (19.4) | 2,425 (31.9) | <0.01 |
| Median | 1.1 | 1.6 | 2.4 | <0.01 |
| d Frequency of ANC services | ||||
| Inadequate (<4 visits) | 6,389 (87.8) | 6,373 (80.9) | 5,160 (68.2) | <0.01 |
| Adequate (≥ 4 visits) | 887 (12.2) | 1,508 (19.1) | 2,410 (31.8) | <0.01 |
| Community level SD | ||||
| Area of residence | ||||
| Urban | 632 (8.6) | 1,188 (15.0) | 965 (12.7) | <0.01 |
| Rural | 6,674 (91.4) | 6,720 (85.0) | 6,620 (87.3) | <0.01 |
| Region | ||||
| Agrarian | 6,691 (91.6) | 7,271 (92.0) | 6,895 (90.9) | 0.13 |
| Pastoralist | 448 (6.1) | 399 (5.0) | 441 (5.8) | 0.42 |
| City | 167 (2.3) | 238 (3.0) | 249 (3.3) | <0.01 |
a
Chi-squared test for trend in proportions;
1
Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant
2
Traditional, and other unspecified;
b
Total figure may not add to 100 percent due to “do not know” and “missing cases.”
c
Empowerment: decision (i. on her own health care; ii. large household purchases; and iii. visits to family or relatives in the household).
d
Frequency: Inadequate by Ethiopian MOH definition less than four ANC visits.