Table 1.

Selected synthetic dyes commonly used in the textile industry: their types, applications, and hazardous effects.

Dye Pollutant	Application	Hazardous Effect	References
Aniline Yellow or 4-phenylazoaniline	Chemical industry, printer’s ink, intermediate for dye synthesis	Induces liver and epidermal tumors, high hepato-carinogenicity to male mouse	[43,44]
Benzamine (BZ)-based azo dye	Chemical industry	Carcinogenic effect on human urinary bladder and reported tumorigenic effect on laboratory animals	[45]
o-Aminoazotoluene (C.I. Solvent Yellow 3)	Food and chemical industry	Tumors in urinary bladder, gall bladder, lung, and live	[46]
Methyl Yellow (Butter Yellow) and derivatives	Chemical, food and textile industry	Highly toxic cancer-causing agent	[47]
Reactive Brilliant Red	Textile, paint industry	Inhibit function of human serum albumin, may react to body protein or enzyme	[48]
Sudan azo dye (1-phenylazo-2-naphthol)	Petrochemical, textile and food industry	Carcinogenic in nature	[49]
Benzidine and its congener	Chemical industry	Carcinogenic to human urinary bladder, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, bile duct, lung, large intestine, stomach and renal cell	[50]
Direct Blue 15 (dimethoxybenzidine-based dye)	Biological and staining applications	Poisonous effect and mutagenicity in reduction process, carcinogenic	[42,51]
p-phenylenediamine (p-PDA)	Hair dye, personal care	Possibility of bladder cancer and skin allergy	[52]
p-Nitroaniline	Dyes intermediate, antioxidants, pharmaceuticals, corrosion inhibitor, petrochemical	Mutagenic, human carcinogen and induces tumors	[53]
Acid Violet 7	Food, paint, paper, cosmetic, and especially in textile industries	Chromosomal aberration, acetylcholinesterase activity inhibition, membrane lipid peroxidation	[54]
o-Toluidine (2-methylaniline)	Intermediate for dye, rubber, and pharmaceuticals	Urinary bladder cancer	[55]
2, 4-Diaminotoluene	Dye industry	Induces tumor in rats and mice, potential human carcinogenic effect	[56]
Malachite Green	Dye stuff in silk, leather, paper and antimicrobial in aquaculture	Carcinogenic, mutagenic, chromosomal fractures, respiratory toxicity	[57]
2-Nitro-p-phenylenediamine	Chemical and pharmaceutical	Reported carcinogenic for female mice	[58]
2-Amino-4-nitrophenol	Cosmetic industry	Causes renal tubular cell hyperplasia	[59]
4-Nitro-o-phenylenediamine	Hair dye, cosmetic industry	Carcinogen to humans	[60]
Reactive Black 5 (sulfonated azo dye)	Color and dye industry	Restrict nitrogen use efficiency of plant, decrease the urease activity, carcinogenicity	[61,62,63]
o-Phenylenediamine (o-PDA)	Pharmaceutical, cosmetic products and corrosion inhibitor	Genotoxic, asthma, gastritis, rise in blood pressure, vertigo, tremors, and comas	[64]
Disperse Red 1 and Disperse Red 13	Textile industry	Mutagenic to salmonella with possibility on human beings, affecting the activity and composition of microbial communities	[65,66,67]
m-Phenylenediamine (m-PDA)	Dye component, additive for resin, coatings, polymers, cosmetic industry	Oxidation products are highly mutagenic	[68]
Congo Red	Cotton dyeing, textile industry	Carcinogenic and mutagenic	[69]
Nitro-group with monocyclic aromatic amines	Various chemical industries	Likely to be carcinogenic	[70]