Table 2.

Effects of Panax ginseng on Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.

Component	Experimental model	Results	References
Fermented P. ginseng powder	DSS-induced colitis	(↓) ZO-1 loss; (↓) proinflammatory response; (↓) NF-κB signaling	[47]
	LPS-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 cell	(↓) TNF-α, IL-12p40 expression; (↓) NF-κB translocation levels	[47]
	LPS-induced inflammation in peritoneal macrophages	(↓) TNF-α, IL-12p40, IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ expression	[47]
Rf	LPS-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 cell	(↓) NO level; (↓) ROS level; (↓) proinflammatory cytokine and enzyme; (↓) NF-κB translocation levels	[48]
	TNF-α–induced inflammation in HT-29 cell	(↓) IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS expression; (↓) NF-κB translocation levels	[48]

DSS, dextran sodium sulfate; ZO-1, zonula occludens-1; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated b cells; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha; IL-12p40, interleukin-12 subunit p40; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; IL-6, interleukin-6; IFN-γ, interferon-gamma; NO, nitric oxide; ROS, reactive oxygen species; iNOS, induced nitric oxide synthase