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Proposed signaling of pro-inflammatory S1P and S1P3 in peritoneal macrophages. LPS activates NF-κB and induces induction of SphK1 and S1P3 expression in macrophages. S1P produced by SphK1 activates pro-inflammatory signaling through S1P3, resulting in increased productions of prostaglandins (PGs), nitric oxides, and mature IL-1β.
