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. 2019 Jan 5;56(8):5436–5455. doi: 10.1007/s12035-018-1448-3

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

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Fig. 5 — Ceramide synthase (CERS) mRNAs, ceramide (Cer), and sphingomyelin (SM) species were measured in postmortem PD brains by Abbott et al. Increased CERS1 expression was found along with a shift towards shorter ceramide acyl chain lengths in brain regions most affected by the disease, although reduction in total levels of ceramide and sphingomyelin concentration was observed [192]. Reduced sphingosine kinase-1 and -2 (SPHKs) and S1P receptor 1 (S1PR1) expression was observed in the mouse MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine)-induced model [46, 193]. The MPTP model also displayed lower protein levels and activity of SPHK1 [193, 194]