Table 2.
Mean BDS scores by study, time (pre- vs. post environment exposure), environment condition, and order (test session).
| Nature 1st/Urban 2nd | Urban 1st/Nature 2nd | Other control | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nature (session 1) | Urban (session 2) | Nature (session 2) | Urban (session 1) | Other (session 1) | ||||||||||||||
| STUDY/Sample | Valid N | Env factor | Statistic | Pre | Post | Pre-post diff | Pre | Post | Pre-post diff | Pre | Post | Pre-post diff | Pre | Post | Mean Diff | Pre | Post | Pre-post diff |
| 1. Walk, UM. Berman et al. (2008) | 37 | W | M | 6.85 | 8.50 | 1.65 | 8.05 | 8.05 | 0.00 | 9.06 | 10.53 | 1.47 | 7.65 | 8.88 | 1.24 | |||
| SD | 1.95 | 2.50 | 2.21 | 1.76 | 1.96 | 1.84 | 2.08 | 2.00 | 1.77 | 1.87 | 2.06 | 2.08 | ||||||
| 2. Picture study, UM. Berman et al. (2008) | 12 | W | M | 9.33 | 10.33 | 1.00 | 9.83 | 11.00 | 1.17 | 6.50 | 8.33 | 1.83 | 5.83 | 6.67 | 0.83 | |||
| SD | 3.78 | 2.66 | 1.79 | 3.54 | 2.00 | 1.83 | 2.26 | 3.14 | 1.60 | 2.48 | 2.50 | 3.06 | ||||||
| 3. Walk, healthy sample, UM 2011. | 21 | W | M | 7.16 | 8.89 | 1.73 | 9.27 | 10.27 | 1.00 | 9.50 | 10.25 | 0.75 | 7.58 | 9.33 | 1.75 | |||
| SD | 3.08 | 3.28 | 1.56 | 2.57 | 2.33 | 1.95 | 2.72 | 1.65 | 2.18 | 2.52 | 2.47 | 2.97 | ||||||
| 4. Walk, MDD sample, UM. Berman et al. (2012) | 19 | W | M | 7.11 | 8.00 | 0.89 | 9.00 | 8.00 | −1.00 | 7.70 | 9.20 | 1.50 | 7.48 | 7.70 | 0.23 | |||
| SD | 3.02 | 2.55 | 1.45 | 1.94 | 1.41 | 1.00 | 3.13 | 3.16 | 1.43 | 2.79 | 2.87 | 0.67 | ||||||
| 5. Picture study, UC, 2015. | 45 | W | M | 8.57 | 9.29 | 0.71 | 9.43 | 8.86 | −0.57 | 9.83 | 9.63 | −0.21 | 8.67 | 9.17 | 0.50 | |||
| SD | 1.86 | 1.35 | 2.08 | 1.83 | 1.90 | 1.66 | 2.32 | 2.67 | 2.34 | 2.78 | 2.62 | 2.15 | ||||||
| 6. Picture study, UM, 2015. | 37 | W | M | 8.31 | 9.44 | 1.13 | 9.94 | 9.19 | −0.75 | 8.86 | 9.19 | 0.33 | 8.29 | 9.19 | 0.90 | |||
| SD | 2.33 | 1.93 | 1.89 | 2.32 | 2.54 | 1.98 | 2.74 | 2.66 | 1.68 | 2.17 | 2.27 | 1.92 | ||||||
| 7. Walk, UC, 2016. | 49 | W | M | 8.96 | 9.50 | 0.54 | 9.58 | 9.12 | −0.46 | 10.43 | 10.96 | 0.52 | 9.17 | 9.91 | 0.74 | |||
| SD | 2.52 | 2.90 | 2.14 | 2.61 | 2.45 | 1.58 | 3.63 | 3.20 | 2.87 | 2.64 | 3.36 | 2.32 | ||||||
| 8. Virtual Reality study, UC, 2016. | 82 | W | M | 8.65 | 9.45 | 0.80 | 9.85 | 10.00 | 0.15 | 10.71 | 11.19 | 0.48 | 9.50 | 10.55 | 1.05 | |||
| SD | 2.59 | 2.45 | 2.19 | 3.13 | 2.72 | 1.82 | 2.59 | 2.92 | 2.04 | 2.03 | 2.61 | 2.38 | ||||||
| 9. Virtual Reality study- with habituation, UC, 2016. | 82 | B | M | 10.40 | 9.85 | −0.55 | 9.95 | 10.12 | 0.17 | 8.87 | 9.66 | 0.79 | ||||||
| SD | 2.85 | 2.76 | 2.10 | 2.41 | 2.84 | 2.09 | 2.44 | 2.37 | 2.26 | |||||||||
| 10. Composite study- Sounds, UC. Van Hedger et al. (2018) | 44 | B | M | 9.77 | 10.64 | 0.86 | 8.50 | 8.77 | 0.27 | |||||||||
| SD | 2.56 | 2.52 | 2.14 | 3.19 | 2.88 | 2.55 | ||||||||||||
| 11. Composite study- Pictures. UC, 2016 | 40 | B | M | 9.42 | 9.95 | 0.53 | 8.33 | 9.19 | 0.86 | |||||||||
| SD | 2.67 | 2.20 | 2.25 | 2.58 | 2.64 | 2.20 | ||||||||||||
| 12. Video study, UBC. Bourrier et al. (2018) | 60 (excl. 30 “other” controls) | B | M | 7.53 | 8.83 | 1.30 | 7.73 | 7.80 | 0.07 | 7.17 | 7.70 | 0.53 | ||||||
| SD | 2.78 | 2.52 | 2.05 | 3.17 | 3.31 | 2.85 | 3.17 | 2.79 | 2.39 | |||||||||
| 13. Picture dose study- Session 1 & 2. UM, 2009. | 39 (37 in 2nd session) | Only nature | M | 6.15 | 7.18 | 1.03 | 7.68 | 8.14 | 0.46 | |||||||||
| SD | 2.12 | 2.47 | 1.77 | 2.19 | 2.55 | 1.69 | ||||||||||||
| Total, W samples (study 1-8) | 302 | W | M | 8.24 | 9.21 | 0.97 | 9.42 | 9.28 | −0.14 | 9.65 | 10.26 | 0.60 | 8.55 | 9.45 | 0.90 | |||
| SD | 2.57 | 2.45 | 2.04 | 2.56 | 2.42 | 1.80 | 2.89 | 2.84 | 2.16 | 2.48 | 2.76 | 2.22 | ||||||
| N | 149 | 149 | 153 | 153 | ||||||||||||||
| Total, B samples (study 9-12) | 226 | B | M | 8.73 | 9.69 | 0.96 | 10.40 | 9.85 | −0.55 | 9.95 | 10.12 | 0.17 | 8.14 | 8.49 | 0.36 | 8.41 | 9.13 | 0.72 |
| SD | 2.84 | 2.53 | 2.13 | 2.85 | 2.76 | 2.10 | 2.41 | 2.84 | 2.09 | 3.00 | 3.02 | 2.57 | 2.75 | 2.63 | 2.29 | |||
| N | 71 | 40 | 42 | 73 | 112 | |||||||||||||
| Grand Total | 567 | M | 8.06 | 9.04 | 0.98 | 9.62 | 9.40 | −0.23 | 9.39 | 9.89 | 0.50 | 8.41 | 9.14 | 0.72 | 8.41 | 9.13 | 0.72 | |
| SD | 2.71 | 2.59 | 2.02 | 2.65 | 2.50 | 1.87 | 2.80 | 2.89 | 2.08 | 2.66 | 2.87 | 2.35 | 2.75 | 2.63 | 2.29 | |||
| N | 259 | 189 | 232 | 226 | 112 | |||||||||||||
M, mean; SD, standard deviation. UM, Univ. of Michigan; UC, Univ. of Chicago; UBC, Univ. Of British Columbia; W, environment is a within-subjects factor; B, environment is a between-subjects factor.