Table 2.

Anti-inflammatory activity and potential mechanisms of ginger.

Constituent	Study Type	Subjects	Dose	Potential Mechanisms	Ref.
6-shogaol	In vitro	HT-29/B6 and Caco-2 human intestinal epithelial cells	100 μM	Inhibiting the PI3K/Akt and NF-κB signaling pathways	[37]
6-shogaol and 6-gingerol, 6-dehydroshogaol	In vitro	RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cells	2.5, 5, and 10 μM	Inhibiting the production of NO and PGE2	[36]
6-gingerol-rich fraction	In vivo	Female Wistar rats	50 and 100 mg/kg	Increasing the levels of myeloperoxidase, NO, and TNF-α	[25]
GDNPs 2	In vivo	Female C57BL/6 FVB/NJ mice	0.3 mg	Increasing the levels of IL-10 and IL-22; decreasing the levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β	[4]
Ginger extract and zingerone	In vivo	Female BALB/c mice	0.1, 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg	Inhibiting NF-κB activation and decreasing the level of IL-1β	[38]
Ginger extract	In vivo	C57BL6/J mice	50 mg/mL	Inhibiting the production of TNF-α; Activating Akt and NF-κB	[39]

NO, nitric oxide; PGE₂, prostaglandin E₂; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor α; GDNPs 2, nanoparticles derived from edible ginger.