Table 2.
Literature review summary on take-home pathway of pesticide exposure—urine concentrations.
| Author (Date) | Location | Sample Size | Pesticide(s) Measurement | Sample Type | Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Babina et al. (2012) | Australia | 340 Children (2.5–6 years old) | OP and pyrethroid metabolites | Urine | Higher urinary metabolites for OPs and pyrethroids were found in rural and periurban children compared to urban children whose parents did not report occupational contact with pesticides. Significantly higher levels of pyrethroids in children living within 50 m from an agricultural area. |
| Bradman et al. (2011) | California | 416 children at multiple time points (6 months, 12 months, and 24 months) | OPs metabolites | Urine | DMAP levels were significantly higher in children living in households with at least one agricultural worker vs. none (21 vs. 11 nmol/L (p < 0.01)). There was a significant difference if their mother was an agricultural worker vs. not (29 vs. 16 nmol/L (p < 0.01)). No relation found of farmworker at home nor farmworkers wearing work clothes inside the house. |
| Fiedler et al. (2015) | Thailand | 24 children agriculture and 29 children aquaculture community (6–8 years old) | OP and pyrethroid metabolites | Urine | OPs and PYR metabolites were significantly (p < 0.005) higher in children living in agricultural areas compared to children from an aquaculture community. Proving that proximity to pesticide applied areas and take-home pathway may increment children exposure to pesticides. |
| Griffith et al. (2011) | Washington State | 44 children in agricultural community (2–5 years old) | OP metabolites | Urine | OP exposure appeared to vary more than 3 times from day-to-day than from child-to-child showing that individual variability needs to be considered. Proximity to farms, food intake, and take-home pathway may influence on variability. |
| Hanchenlaksh et al. (2011) | Thailand | 16 farmworker families | OP metabolites | Urine | Farmers’ urinary DAP metabolites were not correlated with those of their children (GM: 7.6 μg/g) or spouses (GM: 13.0 μg/g). The main route of exposure seemed to be from farmer to family members home. Farmer showering at work was an important determinant to reduce exposure. |
| Kongtip et al. (2014) | Thailand | Women during pregnancy (n = 86), delivery (n = 67) and 2 months postpartum (n = 51) | OP metabolites | Urine | The main factors that influenced the urinary metabolite concentrations during pregnancy were frequency of agricultural field visits during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy, and subjects’ occupations. |
| Mesnage et al. (2012) | France | Case study: Male farmer, wife, and three children | Herbicide (Glyphosate) | Urine | Glyphosate was detected in the urine of the male farmer, but was not detected in the farmer’s wife or two children’s urine. Only one child had detectable levels of glyphosate in urine. |
| Panuwet et al. (2009) | Thailand | 207 children (12–13 years old); grouped by parents’ (farmers and non-farmers) | OP, pyrethroid, and herbicide metabolites | Urine | Children of farmers had significantly higher (p < 0.05) levels of pyrethroid metabolites than children of non-farmers. |
| Raymer et al. (2014) | North Carolina | 361 men living in employer-provided farm worker housing | OP, pyrethroid, and herbicide metabolites | Urine | The metabolite levels of 2-Isopropyl-4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine were significantly increased when workers reported changing their clothes in sleeping room (p = 0.017), and when they reported storing their clothes (p = 0.031) and shoes (p = 0.041) in the sleeping room. |
| Rohitrattana et al. (2014) | Thailand | 24 children from rice-growing community; 29 children in aquaculture community (both groups 6–8 years old) | OP metabolites | Urine | Increasing TCPY levels found in children were significantly related to being with a parent who worked at a farm (p = 0.02) and the levels were higher than children who lived in aquaculture communities. In general, OP metabolites were associated with farm activities, house environments, and behaviors. |
| Sutris et al. (2016) | Malaysia | 180 children (7–12 years) | OP metabolites | Urine | Children with farmworker parents had 3 times higher risk of DAPs detection levels than children with non-farmworker parents. |
| Wu et al. (2013) | China | 513 infants (1 year old) | Pyrethroid metabolites | Urine | Children whose fathers worked in agriculture had twice the amount of PYR metabolite concentration than children whose parents were not farmers (GM: 0.90 µg/L and 0.47 µg/L). No correlation was found between urinary metabolites and maternal occupation. Home ventilation was associated with lower urinary metabolites concentrations. |
Abbreviations: OP, organophosphates; DAP, dialkylphosphate; PYR, pyrethroids; DMAP, dimethyl alkylphosphate; 3-PBA, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid; PNP, paranitrophenol; TCPY, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol; GM, geometric mean.