Table 3.
Literature review summary on take-home pathway of pesticide exposure—dust and urine sample concentrations.
| Author (date) | Location | Sample Size | Pesticide(s) Measurement | Sample Type | Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bradman et al. (2009) | California | 44 strawberry harvesters: 15 in control group and 29 in the intervention group | OP residues and metabolites | Urine, hand rinse, clothing patch | Educational intervention and providing PPE resulted in lower MDA (on hands and in urine) among workers who wore gloves; wearing gloves and taking off clothes may reduce transport of pesticides to homes. MDA was detected on clothing (median = 0.13 μg/cm2), and not on skin. Also, MDA on hands was significantly lower (p < 0.001) among workers who wore gloves compared to those who did not (median = 8.2 μg/pair and 777.2 μg/pair, respectively). |
| Coronado et al. (2011a) | Washington State | 100 farmworker and 100 non-farmworker families (children ages 2–6 years old) | OP residues and metabolites | Urine, Dust | Farmworker (FW) households had higher levels of dust OP metabolites than non-FW’ households. DMTP concentrations in urine were higher in FW than non-FW families (GM: 71 μg/L and 6 μg/L, respectively). FW children had higher levels of OP metabolites in urine than non-FW children (GM: 17 μg/L and 8 μg/L, respectively). A 20% increase in DMTP concentration was observed per mile closer to farmland. |
| Coronado et al. (2012) | Washington State | 95 orchard workers and 94 children (2–6 years old) | OP residues and metabolites | Urine, Dust | No significant associations between work practices and levels of AZM in house dust. No significant differences in AZM urinary metabolite in children living with a farmworkers, stratified by work activities. AZM levels in house dust was not associated with workplace practices. Workers who used hand sanitizer had higher urinary concentrations of DMTP, as did children who attended daycare. |
| Griffith et al. (2018) | Washington State | Year 1: 197 adults and 186 children. Year 4: 187 adults and 172 children. Urine samples: 383 in pre and 359 in post intervention period. |
OP residues and urine metabolites | Urine, Dust | The intervention significantly reduced children’s exposure to OPs: The child/adult pesticide ratio for the intervention group had a 2.7-fold decrease from the baseline value of 0.32 to the post-intervention value of 0.12 (p < 0.001). The community intervention program of disrupting the OP take-home pathway had a significant (p < 0.001) reduction in children’s urinary DMTP levels. |
| Quirós-Alcalá et al. (2012) | California | 20 children from urban families (3–6 years); 20 children from rural families (3 to 6 years) | OP residues and metabolite | Urine, Dust | DEP was the most frequently detected OP in urine (>60%). DEP dust concentrations were not significantly different between the two communities. OP concentrations in dust were not a significant source of DAPs in urine. |
| Salvatore et al. (2015) | California | 116 families (children urine: 106; floor wipes: 103) | OP and pyrethroid residues and metabolites | Urine, Dust | No significant associations with urinary DAP levels and the number of household members working in agriculture. Educational intervention at home was significantly associated with a 37% decrease in pyrtehroids floor wipe levels in homes, but not OPs. |
| Tamaro et al. (2018) | Washington State | Households: 119 House dust: 498 Vehicle dust: 270 Urine samples: 171 adults and 170 children |
OP residues and metabolites | Urine, Dust | The parental occupation influenced the concentration of dimethyl OPs in house dust in the thinning season. During the harvest season, the children’s concentration of urinary DEP and DETP was influenced by the parent occupation as well. Diethyl OPs in house dust in any season was not affected by parental occupation. |
| Trunnelle et al. (2014) | California | 105 women and 103 children (2–8 years old) | Pyrethroid metabolites | Urine, Dust | Urinary metabolites were higher than in U.S. general population. Children had higher metabolite levels than their mothers. A significant positive association was found between outdoor cypermethrin levels and the levels found in indoor dust samples. Poor housing conditions and the urinary metabolite levels were significantly correlated (rs = 0.28, p = 0.0450). |
| Thompson et al. (2008) | Washington State | 24 communities: 205 adults and 204 children (1 year old), 202 adults and 204 children (4 years old). | OP residues and metabolites | Urine, Dust | Community-wide intervention on take home pathway had no effect on pesticide concentrations in urine and dustvehicles and house dust. |
| Thompson et al. (2014) | Washington State | 100 farmworker and 100 non- farmworker families | OP residues and metabolites | Urine, Dust | The dust in the vehicles and houses of FW had higher OP residue concentrations than in non-FW vehicles and houses. FW families had significantly higher urinary DMPTP metabolite concentrations than non-FW families during application season (mean DMTP: 16.5 μg/L for FW children vs. 7.5 μg/L for non-FW children), but no significant differences were found during off season. |
Abbreviations: OPs, organophosphates; DAP, dialkylphosphate, DMTP, dimethylthiophosphate; MDA, malathion; DEP, diethylphosphate; AZM, Azinphos-methyl.