Table 4.
Literature review summary on take-home pathway of pesticide exposure—dust and air sample concentrations.
| Author (date) | Location | Sample Size | Pesticide(s) Measurement | Sample Type | Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arcury et al. (2014) | North Carolina | 176 migrant farmworker houses | OP and pyrethroid residues | Dust | The concentration of OPs chlorpyrifos (GM: 0.11 μg/m2) and malathion (GM 0.12 μ/m2) found in the houses were not associated with camp characteristics. The concentrations of pyrethroids present in the migrant farmworker houses were associated with specific camp characteristics. |
| Butler-Dawson et al. (2016) | Pacific Northwest, U.S. | 155 farmworker households and 60 non-farmworkers households (children 5–12 years old) | OP residues | Dust | Children in agricultural households had higher risk for exposure to OPs as there were significantly (p < 0.01) higher amounts found in their house dust compared to non-agricultural children (e.g., chlorpyrifos median: 18.0 ng/g and 7.0 ng/g, respectively) |
| Butler-Dawson et al. (2018) | Pacific Northwest, U.S. | 278 households in an agricultural area | OP residues | Dust | The odds of having high azinphos-methyl concentrations were 6.25 times more likely in homes with two or more agricultural persons compared to homes having only one agricultural worker (OR: 3.14, p < 0.10 and OR: 4.07, p < 0.10, respectively). |
| Fenske et al. (2013) | Washington state | 46 farmworkers (handlers: 16 thinners: 15 reference: 15) |
OP residues | Dust | Differences were found across worker groups for availability of laundry facilities, work boot storage, frequency of hand washing, commuter vehicle use, parking location, and safety training. Vehicle and house dust significantly correlated with each other. Interventions need to be closer to contamination source to reduce take home pesticide exposure. |
| Golla et al. (2012) | Iowa | 32 households in agricultural community; 256 dust samples | Herbicide (Atrazine residues) | Dust | Atrazine concentrations had significantly (p < 0.05) decreased (GM: from 422 ng/g to 33 ng/g) several months after application in fields, but it was still detected, indicating potential for long-term exposure and continued transport into homes. Modifications in work practices and personal hygiene did not show a reduction into home atrazine levels. |
| Gunier et al. (2011) | California | 89 households in agricultural community | OP residues | Dust | Chlorpyrifos concentrations in carpet was higher in farmworkers households than non-farmworker household (median: 100 ng/g and 37 ng/g for, respectively). Living within 1250 m of agricultural land significantly increased the dust concentrations of pesticides inside homes. |
| Harnly et al. (2009) | California | 168 households in agricultural community; 504 samples of households near farms | OP, pyrethroid herbicide, and fungicide residues | Dust | OP concentrations in dust significantly (p < 0.01) increased as pesticide applications in nearby farms increased (except for diazinon and chlorpyrifos). Pesticide concentration in dust was significantly(p < 0.05) associated with storing of shoes inside farmworkers’ homes. |
| Plascak et al. (2018) | Washington state | 91 households; 418 dust samples | OP residues | Dust | The GM (95% CI) of dimethyl OPs residues in homes with none, one, or at least two residents working in agriculture was 0.07 nmole/g (0.02–0.31), 0.12 nmole/g (0.03–0.56), and 0.35 nmole/g (0.07–1.75), respectively. The pesticide house dust concentrations among homes with at least two agriculture workers was approximately 400% higher than among homes without any agriculture workers, regardless of orchard density. |
| Norkaew et al. (2013) | Thailand | 108 households of farming and non-farming families | OP residues | Air, dust | Houses of farmworker families had higher levels of pesticide residues than non-farmworker families; however, the chlorpyrifos mean concentration for air and dust samples were not significantly different between farmworker and non-farmworker families. |
| Quirós-Alcalá et al. (2011) | California | 13 urban houses and 15 farmworker homes | OP, pyrethroid, herbicide, and fungicide residues | Dust | Analytes detected in both urban and farmworker homes had no differences in concentrations or loadings between the locations. Chlorthal-dimethyl was detected solely in farmworker homes. Diazinon and chlorpyrifos concentrations in urban homes were 40–80% lower than the concentrations seen in FW homes. |
| Smith et al. (2016) | Washington state | 100 farmworker (FW) households; 100 non-farmworker (non-FW) households | OP residues | Dust | Pesticide dust concentrations were higher in FW households than non-FW households (e.g., Chlorpyrifos dust concentrations were 9.8 times higher, p < 0.05, in FW than non-FW houses). |
| Trunnelle et al. (2013) | California | 55 farmworker households | Pyrethroid residues | Dust | Cis- and trans-permethrin had the highest detection frequency (67%) (med: 244 and 172 ng/g). Deltamethrin, esfenvalerate, and permethrin were detected more frequently in this study than other studies. A positive association was found between cypermethrin outside and cypermethrin dust concentrations inside households (rs = 0.28, p = 0.0450) * |
* Spearman rank correlation. Abbreviations: GM, geometric mean; CI, confidence interval; OPs, organophosphates; DAP, dialkylphosphate, DMTP, dimethylthiophosphate; MDA, malathion; DEP, diethylphosphate.