Figure 1.

Model-predicted 13-year changes in cognitive abilities by openness and baseline age. The solid lines are estimated for individuals with a high openness level (openness score = 30.12); the dashed lines are estimates for individuals with a low openness level (openness score = 21.46). Higher scores indicate a better performance. Possible score for the information is 0–29; similarities 0–28; picture completion 0–21; and digit symbol 0–93. The models controlled for sex, education level, marital status, occupation, smoking, past and present illness, and practice effects.