Table 2.

Stigma‐related themes and itemized studies

Main stigma‐related themes	Theme description	Theme identified in studies
1. Concealment	Attempts to hide the ND Often associated with fear of displaying physical manifestations of disease	n = 11 Alston, Jones, and Curtin (2012); Arai, Sugiura, Miura, Washio, and Kudo (2000); Burgener et al. (2015); Guo et al. (2012); McQueen et al. (1995); Morgan et al. (2002); Rafael et al. (2010); San‐Juan et al. (2015); Tiamkao et al. (2013); von Gaudecker et al. (2017); Yang et al. (2011)
2. Social exclusion	By self and/or by others Of self and/or of others (i.e., friends/family) Often associated with fear (e.g., of contagion or of disease manifestations)	n = 23 Alston et al. (2012); Bain et al. (2013); Birbeck et al. (2006); Burgener et al. (2015); Farmer et al. (2003); Forbes et al. (2011); Guo et al. (2012); Hsiao et al. (2015); Klepac et al. (2007); Kim et al. (2003); McQueen et al. (1995); Morgan et al. (2002); Mshana et al. (2011); Mugumbate (2013); Neni et al. (2010); Ojinnaka (2002); Osungbade et al. (2011); Rafael et al. (2010); Tiamkao et al. (2013); Tuan et al. (2007); von Gaudecker et al. (2017); Yang et al. (2011); Youssef et al. (2009)
3. Disempowerment, discrimination, unequal life opportunities	Loss of power, control, choices, and chances (e.g., decision‐making, finances, employment, marriage) Includes prejudice/intolerance	n = 21 Atadzhano et al. (2006); Bain et al. (2013); Birbeck et al. (2006); Deresse et al. (2016); Farmer et al. (2003); Forbes et al. (2011); Guo et al. (2012); Hsiao et al. (2015); Kaddumukasa et al. (2015); Kartal et al. (2016); Kim et al. (2003); McQueen et al. (1995); Mshana et al. (2011); Mugumbate et al. (2013); Neni et al. (2010); Paúl et al. (1999); Rafael et al. (2010); Tiamkao et al. (2013); Tuan et al. (2007); Yang et al. (2011); Youssef et al. (2009)
4. Healthcare systems, services, and providers Availability and accessibility Healthcare provider beliefs	Lack of available, accessible healthcare systems, services and providers and related issues (e.g., cost, travel) healthcare provider lack of time (to address complexities of certain NDs), and beliefs (e.g., relative priority)	n = 9 Birbeck et al. (2002); Cahill et al. (2008); Guo et al. (2012); Hsiao et al. (2015); McQueen et al. (1995); Mshana et al. (2011); Paúl et al. (1999); Stansbury et al. (2010); Yang et al. (2011)