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. 2019 Jul 11;9:10045. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-46422-2

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Biotic and abiotic correlates of low vitamin B₁ levels in planktivorous fish presented in gradients of fish abundance, background light attenuation and nutrient input (illustrated by the gray triangular shape). Cases with vitamin B₁-poor planktivorous fish are indicated by green circles (see the legend). (Column 1) The average proportion of algae biomass located in picoalgae illustrates the degree to which the primary producer cell-size spectrum shifts toward the smallest primary producers. (Column 2) Total light penetrating the water column (median) from attenuation by primary producers (self-shading) and dissolved substances (background attenuation). Note, that the light attenuation is driven by background attenuation in scenarios with very low to average nutrient input and almost entirely by self-shading in scenarios with high and very high nutrient input. (Columns 3–4) Concentration of dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphorous (median). (Columns 2–4) Red rectangles outline the scenarios in which low levels of nitrogen, phosphorous and/or light fit with the observed low levels of vitamin B₁ in planktivorous fish.