. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2019 Nov 6.

Published in final edited form as: Nat Hum Behav. 2019 May 6;3(7):684–691. doi: 10.1038/s41562-019-0602-x

Table 3.

Robustness to unmeasured confounding (E-values^a) for assessing the causal associations between parenting and offspring subsequent health and well-being (Growing Up Today Study 2 [GUTS2] 2008 to 2011 or 2013 questionnaire wave, N=5,453; Growing Up Today Study 1 [GUTS1] 1997 to 2007, 2010 or 2013 questionnaire wave, N=8,476)

	Relationship satisfaction		Parental authoritativeness		Family dinner frequency
	For effect estimate^b	For CI limit^c	For effect estimate^b	For CI limit^c	For effect estimate^b	For CI limit^c
Life satisfaction	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.47	1.24
Positive affect	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.39	1.12
Self-esteem	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.47	1.24
Emotional processing	1.90	1.69	1.90	1.64	1.39	1.12
Emotional expression	2.04	1.83	2.04	1.83	1.36	1.00
No. of physical health problems	1.33	1.00	1.36	1.08	1.16	1.00
Overweight/obesity	1.60	1.29	1.53	1.25	1.29	1.00
Depressive symptoms	2.65	2.41	1.98	1.77	1.50	1.27
Depression diagnosis	3.11	2.35	1.81	1.11	1.96	1.29
Anxiety symptoms	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.30	1.00
Anxiety diagnosis	2.66	1.88	1.16	1.00	1.56	1.00
Probable PTSD	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	2.17	1.29
Overeating	7.46	4.44	3.87	2.50	2.04	1.00
Eating disorder	4.19	2.30	1.36	1.00	1.63	1.00
Cigarette smoking	2.21	1.46	1.50	1.00	1.50	1.00
Frequent binge drinking	1.11	1.00	1.39	1.00	1.56	1.16
Marijuana use	1.88	1.53	1.29	1.00	1.74	1.21
Any other illicit drug use	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.96	1.00
Prescription drug misuse	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	2.04	1.46
Number of sexual partners	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.61	1.39
Early sexual initiation	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	2.50	1.88
History of STIs	2.26	1.00	2.04	1.00	2.17	1.56
Teen pregnancy	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.50	1.00
Abnormal Pap test	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	2.12	1.67
Frequency of volunteering	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.47	1.00
Sense of mission	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.36	1.00
Forgiveness of others	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.45	1.20
Registered to vote	---^d	---^d	---^d	---^d	1.11	1.00

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval.

See VanderWeele and Ding for the formula²³ and Mathur et al. for the website and R package²⁴ for calculating E-values.

^. The E-values for effect estimates are the minimum strength of association on the risk ratio scale that an unmeasured confounder would need to have with both the exposure and the outcome, above and beyond the measured covariates, to fully explain away the observed exposure-outcome association as shown in Table 2.

^. The E-values for the limit of the 95% confidence interval closest to the null denote the minimum strength of association on the risk ratio scale that an unmeasured confounder would need to have with both the exposure and the outcome, above and beyond the measured covariates, to shift the confidence interval to include the null value.

^. “---” indicates data not available in that cohort. The analyses on relationship satisfaction and parental authoritativeness used data from GUTS2, and the analyses on family dinner frequency used data from GUTS1. Some outcomes were only assessed in GUTS1 but not in GUTS2.