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Roles of HCC-derived exosomes in regulating immune response. Exosomes suppress CD3 ζ-chain expression by T-cells and promoted their apoptosis by enriching for CD95L, TRAIL or galectin 9, and attenuate T-cell-mediated killing. Also, NK cell cytotoxicity is inhibited or blocked by TGF-β or soluble MICA/MICB in a NKG2D-dependent manner. Furthermore, exosomes can also promote the M2 macrophages, N2 neutrophils and Bregs.
